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PK �!\z�m� � FAQnu �[��� This is the Bash FAQ, version 4.15, for Bash version 5.0. This document contains a set of frequently-asked questions concerning Bash, the GNU Bourne-Again Shell. Bash is a freely-available command interpreter with advanced features for both interactive use and shell programming. Another good source of basic information about shells is the collection of FAQ articles periodically posted to comp.unix.shell. Questions and comments concerning this document should be sent to chet.ramey@case.edu. This document is available for anonymous FTP with the URL ftp://ftp.cwru.edu/pub/bash/FAQ The Bash home page is http://cnswww.cns.cwru.edu/~chet/bash/bashtop.html ---------- Contents: Section A: The Basics A1) What is it? A2) What's the latest version? A3) Where can I get it? A4) On what machines will bash run? A5) Will bash run on operating systems other than Unix? A6) How can I build bash with gcc? A7) How can I make bash my login shell? A8) I just changed my login shell to bash, and now I can't FTP into my machine. Why not? A9) What's the `POSIX Shell and Utilities standard'? A10) What is the bash `posix mode'? Section B: The latest version B1) What's new in version 4.3? B2) Are there any user-visible incompatibilities between bash-4.3 and previous bash versions? Section C: Differences from other Unix shells C1) How does bash differ from sh, the Bourne shell? C2) How does bash differ from the Korn shell, version ksh88? C3) Which new features in ksh-93 are not in bash, and which are? Section D: Why does bash do some things differently than other Unix shells? D1) Why does bash run a different version of `command' than `which command' says it will? D2) Why doesn't bash treat brace expansions exactly like csh? D3) Why doesn't bash have csh variable modifiers? D4) How can I make my csh aliases work when I convert to bash? D5) How can I pipe standard output and standard error from one command to another, like csh does with `|&'? D6) Now that I've converted from ksh to bash, are there equivalents to ksh features like autoloaded functions and the `whence' command? Section E: Why does bash do certain things the way it does? E1) Why is the bash builtin `test' slightly different from /bin/test? E2) Why does bash sometimes say `Broken pipe'? E3) When I have terminal escape sequences in my prompt, why does bash wrap lines at the wrong column? E4) If I pipe the output of a command into `read variable', why doesn't the output show up in $variable when the read command finishes? E5) I have a bunch of shell scripts that use backslash-escaped characters in arguments to `echo'. Bash doesn't interpret these characters. Why not, and how can I make it understand them? E6) Why doesn't a while or for loop get suspended when I type ^Z? E7) What about empty for loops in Makefiles? E8) Why does the arithmetic evaluation code complain about `08'? E9) Why does the pattern matching expression [A-Z]* match files beginning with every letter except `z'? E10) Why does `cd //' leave $PWD as `//'? E11) If I resize my xterm while another program is running, why doesn't bash notice the change? E12) Why don't negative offsets in substring expansion work like I expect? E13) Why does filename completion misbehave if a colon appears in the filename? E14) Why does quoting the pattern argument to the regular expression matching conditional operator (=~) cause matching to stop working? E15) Tell me more about the shell compatibility level. Section F: Things to watch out for on certain Unix versions F1) Why can't I use command line editing in my `cmdtool'? F2) I built bash on Solaris 2. Why do globbing expansions and filename completion chop off the first few characters of each filename? F3) Why does bash dump core after I interrupt username completion or `~user' tilde expansion on a machine running NIS? F4) I'm running SVR4.2. Why is the line erased every time I type `@'? F5) Why does bash report syntax errors when my C News scripts use a redirection before a subshell command? F6) Why can't I use vi-mode editing on Red Hat Linux 6.1? F7) Why do bash-2.05a and bash-2.05b fail to compile `printf.def' on HP/UX 11.x? Section G: How can I get bash to do certain common things? G1) How can I get bash to read and display eight-bit characters? G2) How do I write a function `x' to replace builtin command `x', but still invoke the command from within the function? G3) How can I find the value of a shell variable whose name is the value of another shell variable? G4) How can I make the bash `time' reserved word print timing output that looks like the output from my system's /usr/bin/time? G5) How do I get the current directory into my prompt? G6) How can I rename "*.foo" to "*.bar"? G7) How can I translate a filename from uppercase to lowercase? G8) How can I write a filename expansion (globbing) pattern that will match all files in the current directory except "." and ".."? Section H: Where do I go from here? H1) How do I report bugs in bash, and where should I look for fixes and advice? H2) What kind of bash documentation is there? H3) What's coming in future versions? H4) What's on the bash `wish list'? H5) When will the next release appear? ---------- Section A: The Basics A1) What is it? Bash is a Unix command interpreter (shell). It is an implementation of the Posix 1003.2 shell standard, and resembles the Korn and System V shells. Bash contains a number of enhancements over those shells, both for interactive use and shell programming. Features geared toward interactive use include command line editing, command history, job control, aliases, and prompt expansion. Programming features include additional variable expansions, shell arithmetic, and a number of variables and options to control shell behavior. Bash was originally written by Brian Fox of the Free Software Foundation. The current developer and maintainer is Chet Ramey of Case Western Reserve University. A2) What's the latest version? The latest version is 4.3, first made available on 26 February, 2014. A3) Where can I get it? Bash is the GNU project's shell, and so is available from the master GNU archive site, ftp.gnu.org, and its mirrors. The latest version is also available for FTP from ftp.cwru.edu. The following URLs tell how to get version 4.3: ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/bash/bash-4.3.tar.gz ftp://ftp.cwru.edu/pub/bash/bash-4.3.tar.gz Formatted versions of the documentation are available with the URLs: ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/bash/bash-doc-4.3.tar.gz ftp://ftp.cwru.edu/pub/bash/bash-doc-4.3.tar.gz Any patches for the current version are available with the URL: ftp://ftp.cwru.edu/pub/bash/bash-4.3-patches/ A4) On what machines will bash run? Bash has been ported to nearly every version of Unix. All you should have to do to build it on a machine for which a port exists is to type `configure' and then `make'. The build process will attempt to discover the version of Unix you have and tailor itself accordingly, using a script created by GNU autoconf. More information appears in the file `INSTALL' in the distribution. The Bash web page (http://cnswww.cns.cwru.edu/~chet/bash/bashtop.html) explains how to obtain binary versions of bash for most of the major commercial Unix systems. A5) Will bash run on operating systems other than Unix? Configuration specifics for Unix-like systems such as QNX and LynxOS are included in the distribution. Bash-2.05 and later versions should compile and run on Minix 2.0 (patches were contributed), but I don't believe anyone has built bash-2.x on earlier Minix versions yet. Bash has been ported to versions of Windows implementing the Win32 programming interface. This includes Windows 95 and Windows NT. The port was done by Cygnus Solutions (now part of Red Hat) as part of their CYGWIN project. For more information about the project, see http://www.cygwin.com/. Cygnus originally ported bash-1.14.7, and that port was part of their early GNU-Win32 (the original name) releases. Cygnus has also done ports of bash-3.2 and bash-4.0 to the CYGWIN environment, and both are available as part of their current release. Bash-2.05b and later versions should require no local Cygnus changes to build and run under CYGWIN. DJ Delorie has a port of bash-2.x which runs under MS-DOS, as part of the DJGPP project. For more information on the project, see http://www.delorie.com/djgpp/ I have been told that the original DJGPP port was done by Daisuke Aoyama. Mark Elbrecht <snowball3@bigfoot.com> has sent me notice that bash-2.04 is available for DJGPP V2. The files are available as: ftp://ftp.simtel.net/pub/simtelnet/gnu/djgpp/v2gnu/bsh204b.zip binary ftp://ftp.simtel.net/pub/simtelnet/gnu/djgpp/v2gnu/bsh204d.zip documentation ftp://ftp.simtel.net/pub/simtelnet/gnu/djgpp/v2gnu/bsh204s.zip source Mark began to work with bash-2.05, but I don't know the current status. Bash-3.0 compiles and runs with no modifications under Microsoft's Services for Unix (SFU), once known as Interix. I do not anticipate any problems with building bash-4.2 and later, but will gladly accept any patches that are needed. A6) How can I build bash with gcc? Bash configures to use gcc by default if it is available. Read the file INSTALL in the distribution for more information. A7) How can I make bash my login shell? Some machines let you use `chsh' to change your login shell. Other systems use `passwd -s' or `passwd -e'. If one of these works for you, that's all you need. Note that many systems require the full pathname to a shell to appear in /etc/shells before you can make it your login shell. For this, you may need the assistance of your friendly local system administrator. If you cannot do this, you can still use bash as your login shell, but you need to perform some tricks. The basic idea is to add a command to your login shell's startup file to replace your login shell with bash. For example, if your login shell is csh or tcsh, and you have installed bash in /usr/gnu/bin/bash, add the following line to ~/.login: if ( -f /usr/gnu/bin/bash ) exec /usr/gnu/bin/bash --login (the `--login' tells bash that it is a login shell). It's not a good idea to put this command into ~/.cshrc, because every csh you run without the `-f' option, even ones started to run csh scripts, reads that file. If you must put the command in ~/.cshrc, use something like if ( $?prompt ) exec /usr/gnu/bin/bash --login to ensure that bash is exec'd only when the csh is interactive. If your login shell is sh or ksh, you have to do two things. First, create an empty file in your home directory named `.bash_profile'. The existence of this file will prevent the exec'd bash from trying to read ~/.profile, and re-execing itself over and over again. ~/.bash_profile is the first file bash tries to read initialization commands from when it is invoked as a login shell. Next, add a line similar to the above to ~/.profile: [ -f /usr/gnu/bin/bash ] && [ -x /usr/gnu/bin/bash ] && \ exec /usr/gnu/bin/bash --login This will cause login shells to replace themselves with bash running as a login shell. Once you have this working, you can copy your initialization code from ~/.profile to ~/.bash_profile. I have received word that the recipe supplied above is insufficient for machines running CDE. CDE has a maze of twisty little startup files, all slightly different. If you cannot change your login shell in the password file to bash, you will have to (apparently) live with CDE using the shell in the password file to run its startup scripts. If you have changed your shell to bash, there is code in the CDE startup files (on Solaris, at least) that attempts to do the right thing. It is, however, often broken, and may require that you use the $BASH_ENV trick described below. `dtterm' claims to use $SHELL as the default program to start, so if you can change $SHELL in the CDE startup files, you should be able to use bash in your terminal windows. Setting DTSOURCEPROFILE in ~/.dtprofile will cause the `Xsession' program to read your login shell's startup files. You may be able to use bash for the rest of the CDE programs by setting SHELL to bash in ~/.dtprofile as well, but I have not tried this. You can use the above `exec' recipe to start bash when not logging in with CDE by testing the value of the DT variable: if [ -n "$DT" ]; then [ -f /usr/gnu/bin/bash ] && exec /usr/gnu/bin/bash --login fi If CDE starts its shells non-interactively during login, the login shell startup files (~/.profile, ~/.bash_profile) will not be sourced at login. To get around this problem, append a line similar to the following to your ~/.dtprofile: BASH_ENV=${HOME}/.bash_profile ; export BASH_ENV and add the following line to the beginning of ~/.bash_profile: unset BASH_ENV A8) I just changed my login shell to bash, and now I can't FTP into my machine. Why not? You must add the full pathname to bash to the file /etc/shells. As noted in the answer to the previous question, many systems require this before you can make bash your login shell. Most versions of ftpd use this file to prohibit `special' users such as `uucp' and `news' from using FTP. A9) What's the `POSIX Shell and Utilities standard'? POSIX is a name originally coined by Richard Stallman for a family of open system standards based on UNIX. There are a number of aspects of UNIX under consideration for standardization, from the basic system services at the system call and C library level to applications and tools to system administration and management. Each area of standardization is assigned to a working group in the 1003 series. The POSIX Shell and Utilities standard was originally developed by IEEE Working Group 1003.2 (POSIX.2). Today it has been merged with the original 1003.1 Working Group and is maintained by the Austin Group (a joint working group of the IEEE, The Open Group and ISO/IEC SC22/WG15). Today the Shell and Utilities are a volume within the set of documents that make up IEEE Std 1003.1-2001, and thus now the former POSIX.2 (from 1992) is now part of the current POSIX.1 standard (POSIX 1003.1-2001). The Shell and Utilities volume concentrates on the command interpreter interface and utility programs commonly executed from the command line or by other programs. The standard is freely available on the web at http://www.UNIX-systems.org/version3/ . Work continues at the Austin Group on maintenance issues; see http://www.opengroup.org/austin/ to join the discussions. Bash is concerned with the aspects of the shell's behavior defined by the POSIX Shell and Utilities volume. The shell command language has of course been standardized, including the basic flow control and program execution constructs, I/O redirection and pipelining, argument handling, variable expansion, and quoting. The `special' builtins, which must be implemented as part of the shell to provide the desired functionality, are specified as being part of the shell; examples of these are `eval' and `export'. Other utilities appear in the sections of POSIX not devoted to the shell which are commonly (and in some cases must be) implemented as builtin commands, such as `read' and `test'. POSIX also specifies aspects of the shell's interactive behavior as part of the UPE, including job control and command line editing. Only vi-style line editing commands have been standardized; emacs editing commands were left out due to objections. The latest version of the POSIX Shell and Utilities standard is available (now updated to the 2004 Edition) as part of the Single UNIX Specification Version 3 at http://www.UNIX-systems.org/version3/ A10) What is the bash `posix mode'? Although bash is an implementation of the POSIX shell specification, there are areas where the bash default behavior differs from that spec. The bash `posix mode' changes the bash behavior in these areas so that it obeys the spec more closely. Posix mode is entered by starting bash with the --posix or '-o posix' option or executing `set -o posix' after bash is running. The specific aspects of bash which change when posix mode is active are listed in the file POSIX in the bash distribution. They are also listed in a section in the Bash Reference Manual (from which that file is generated). Section B: The latest version B1) What's new in version 4.3? Bash-4.3 is the third revision to the fourth major release of bash. Bash-4.3 contains the following new features (see the manual page for complete descriptions and the CHANGES and NEWS files in the bash-4.3 distribution): o The `helptopic' completion action now maps to all the help topics, not just the shell builtins. o The `help' builtin no longer does prefix substring matching first, so `help read' does not match `readonly', but will do it if exact string matching fails. o The shell can be compiled to not display a message about processes that terminate due to SIGTERM. o Non-interactive shells now react to the setting of checkwinsize and set LINES and COLUMNS after a foreground job exits. o There is a new shell option, `globasciiranges', which, when set to on, forces globbing range comparisons to use character ordering as if they were run in the C locale. o There is a new shell option, `direxpand', which makes filename completion expand variables in directory names in the way bash-4.1 did. o In Posix mode, the `command' builtin does not change whether or not a builtin it shadows is treated as an assignment builtin. o The `return' and `exit' builtins accept negative exit status arguments. o The word completion code checks whether or not a filename containing a shell variable expands to a directory name and appends `/' to the word as appropriate. The same code expands shell variables in command names when performing command completion. o In Posix mode, it is now an error to attempt to define a shell function with the same name as a Posix special builtin. o When compiled for strict Posix conformance, history expansion is disabled by default. o The history expansion character (!) does not cause history expansion when followed by the closing quote in a double-quoted string. o `complete' and its siblings compgen/compopt now takes a new `-o noquote' option to inhibit quoting of the completions. o Setting HISTSIZE to a value less than zero causes the history list to be unlimited (setting it 0 zero disables the history list). o Setting HISTFILESIZE to a value less than zero causes the history file size to be unlimited (setting it to 0 causes the history file to be truncated to zero size). o The `read' builtin now skips NUL bytes in the input. o There is a new `bind -X' option to print all key sequences bound to Unix commands. o When in Posix mode, `read' is interruptible by a trapped signal. After running the trap handler, read returns 128+signal and throws away any partially-read input. o The command completion code skips whitespace and assignment statements before looking for the command name word to be completed. o The build process has a new mechanism for constructing separate help files that better reflects the current set of compilation options. o The -nt and -ot options to test now work with files with nanosecond timestamp resolution. o The shell saves the command history in any shell for which history is enabled and HISTFILE is set, not just interactive shells. o The shell has `nameref' variables and new -n(/+n) options to declare and unset to use them, and a `test -R' option to test for them. o The shell now allows assigning, referencing, and unsetting elements of indexed arrays using negative subscripts (a[-1]=2, echo ${a[-1]}) which count back from the last element of the array. o The {x}<word redirection feature now allows words like {array[ind]} and can use variables with special meanings to the shell (e.g., BASH_XTRACEFD). o There is a new CHILD_MAX special shell variable; its value controls the number of exited child statues the shell remembers. o There is a new configuration option (--enable-direxpand-default) that causes the `direxpand' shell option to be enabled by default. o Bash does not do anything special to ensure that the file descriptor assigned to X in {x}<foo remains open after the block containing it completes. o The `wait' builtin has a new `-n' option to wait for the next child to change status. o The `printf' %(...)T format specifier now uses the current time if no argument is supplied. o There is a new variable, BASH_COMPAT, that controls the current shell compatibility level. o The `popd' builtin now treats additional arguments as errors. o The brace expansion code now treats a failed sequence expansion as a simple string and will continue to expand brace terms in the remainder of the word. o Shells started to run process substitutions now run any trap set on EXIT. o The fc builtin now interprets -0 as the current command line. o Completing directory names containing shell variables now adds a trailing slash if the expanded result is a directory. A short feature history dating back to Bash-2.0: Bash-4.2 contained the following new features: o `exec -a foo' now sets $0 to `foo' in an executable shell script without a leading #!. o Subshells begun to execute command substitutions or run shell functions or builtins in subshells do not reset trap strings until a new trap is specified. This allows $(trap) to display the caller's traps and the trap strings to persist until a new trap is set. o `trap -p' will now show signals ignored at shell startup, though their disposition still cannot be modified. o $'...', echo, and printf understand \uXXXX and \UXXXXXXXX escape sequences. o declare/typeset has a new `-g' option, which creates variables in the global scope even when run in a shell function. o test/[/[[ have a new -v variable unary operator, which returns success if `variable' has been set. o Posix parsing changes to allow `! time command' and multiple consecutive instances of `!' (which toggle) and `time' (which have no cumulative effect). o Posix change to allow `time' as a command by itself to print the elapsed user, system, and real times for the shell and its children. o $((...)) is always parsed as an arithmetic expansion first, instead of as a potential nested command substitution, as Posix requires. o A new FUNCNEST variable to allow the user to control the maximum shell function nesting (recursive execution) level. o The mapfile builtin now supplies a third argument to the callback command: the line about to be assigned to the supplied array index. o The printf builtin has as new %(fmt)T specifier, which allows time values to use strftime-like formatting. o There is a new `compat41' shell option. o The cd builtin has a new Posix-mandated `-e' option. o Negative subscripts to indexed arrays, previously errors, now are treated as offsets from the maximum assigned index + 1. o Negative length specifications in the ${var:offset:length} expansion, previously errors, are now treated as offsets from the end of the variable. o Parsing change to allow `time -p --'. o Posix-mode parsing change to not recognize `time' as a keyword if the following token begins with a `-'. This means no more Posix-mode `time -p'. Posix interpretation 267. o There is a new `lastpipe' shell option that runs the last command of a pipeline in the current shell context. The lastpipe option has no effect if job control is enabled. o History expansion no longer expands the `$!' variable expansion. o Posix mode shells no longer exit if a variable assignment error occurs with an assignment preceding a command that is not a special builtin. o Non-interactive mode shells exit if -u is enabled an an attempt is made to use an unset variable with the % or # expansions, the `//', `^', or `,' expansions, or the parameter length expansion. o Posix-mode shells use the argument passed to `.' as-is if a $PATH search fails, effectively searching the current directory. Posix-2008 change. A short feature history dating back to Bash-2.0: Bash-4.1 contained the following new features: o Here-documents within $(...) command substitutions may once more be delimited by the closing right paren, instead of requiring a newline. o Bash's file status checks (executable, readable, etc.) now take file system ACLs into account on file systems that support them. o Bash now passes environment variables with names that are not valid shell variable names through into the environment passed to child processes. o The `execute-unix-command' readline function now attempts to clear and reuse the current line rather than move to a new one after the command executes. o `printf -v' can now assign values to array indices. o New `complete -E' and `compopt -E' options that work on the "empty" completion: completion attempted on an empty command line. o New complete/compgen/compopt -D option to define a `default' completion: a completion to be invoked on command for which no completion has been defined. If this function returns 124, programmable completion is attempted again, allowing a user to dynamically build a set of completions as completion is attempted by having the default completion function install individual completion functions each time it is invoked. o When displaying associative arrays, subscripts are now quoted. o Changes to dabbrev-expand to make it more `emacs-like': no space appended after matches, completions are not sorted, and most recent history entries are presented first. o The [[ and (( commands are now subject to the setting of `set -e' and the ERR trap. o The source/. builtin now removes NUL bytes from the file before attempting to parse commands. o There is a new configuration option (in config-top.h) that forces bash to forward all history entries to syslog. o A new variable $BASHOPTS to export shell options settable using `shopt' to child processes. o There is a new confgure option that forces the extglob option to be enabled by default. o New variable $BASH_XTRACEFD; when set to an integer bash will write xtrace output to that file descriptor. o If the optional left-hand-side of a redirection is of the form {var}, the shell assigns the file descriptor used to $var or uses $var as the file descriptor to move or close, depending on the redirection operator. o The < and > operators to the [[ conditional command now do string comparison according to the current locale. o Programmable completion now uses the completion for `b' instead of `a' when completion is attempted on a line like: a $(b c. o Force extglob on temporarily when parsing the pattern argument to the == and != operators to the [[ command, for compatibility. o Changed the behavior of interrupting the wait builtin when a SIGCHLD is received and a trap on SIGCHLD is set to be Posix-mode only. o The read builtin has a new `-N nchars' option, which reads exactly NCHARS characters, ignoring delimiters like newline. o The mapfile/readarray builtin no longer stores the commands it invokes via callbacks in the history list. o There is a new `compat40' shopt option. o The < and > operators to [[ do string comparisons using the current locale only if the compatibility level is greater than 40 (set to 41 by default). o New bindable readline function: menu-complete-backward. o In the readline vi-mode insertion keymap, C-n is now bound to menu-complete by default, and C-p to menu-complete-backward. o When in readline vi command mode, repeatedly hitting ESC now does nothing, even when ESC introduces a bound key sequence. This is closer to how historical vi behaves. o New bindable readline function: skip-csi-sequence. Can be used as a default to consume key sequences generated by keys like Home and End without having to bind all keys. o New bindable readline variable: skip-completed-text, active when completing in the middle of a word. If enabled, it means that characters in the completion that match characters in the remainder of the word are "skipped" rather than inserted into the line. o The pre-readline-6.0 version of menu completion is available as "old-menu-complete" for users who do not like the readline-6.0 version. o New bindable readline variable: echo-control-characters. If enabled, and the tty ECHOCTL bit is set, controls the echoing of characters corresponding to keyboard-generated signals. o New bindable readline variable: enable-meta-key. Controls whether or not readline sends the smm/rmm sequences if the terminal indicates it has a meta key that enables eight-bit characters. Bash-4.0 contained the following new features: o When using substring expansion on the positional parameters, a starting index of 0 now causes $0 to be prefixed to the list. o There is a new variable, $BASHPID, which always returns the process id of the current shell. o There is a new `autocd' option that, when enabled, causes bash to attempt to `cd' to a directory name that is supplied as the first word of a simple command. o There is a new `checkjobs' option that causes the shell to check for and report any running or stopped jobs at exit. o The programmable completion code exports a new COMP_TYPE variable, set to a character describing the type of completion being attempted. o The programmable completion code exports a new COMP_KEY variable, set to the character that caused the completion to be invoked (e.g., TAB). o The programmable completion code now uses the same set of characters as readline when breaking the command line into a list of words. o The block multiplier for the ulimit -c and -f options is now 512 when in Posix mode, as Posix specifies. o Changed the behavior of the read builtin to save any partial input received in the specified variable when the read builtin times out. This also results in variables specified as arguments to read to be set to the empty string when there is no input available. When the read builtin times out, it returns an exit status greater than 128. o The shell now has the notion of a `compatibility level', controlled by new variables settable by `shopt'. Setting this variable currently restores the bash-3.1 behavior when processing quoted strings on the rhs of the `=~' operator to the `[[' command. o The `ulimit' builtin now has new -b (socket buffer size) and -T (number of threads) options. o There is a new `compopt' builtin that allows completion functions to modify completion options for existing completions or the completion currently being executed. o The `read' builtin has a new -i option which inserts text into the reply buffer when using readline. o A new `-E' option to the complete builtin allows control of the default behavior for completion on an empty line. o There is now limited support for completing command name words containing globbing characters. o The `help' builtin now has a new -d option, to display a short description, and a -m option, to print help information in a man page-like format. o There is a new `mapfile' builtin to populate an array with lines from a given file. o If a command is not found, the shell attempts to execute a shell function named `command_not_found_handle', supplying the command words as the function arguments. o There is a new shell option: `globstar'. When enabled, the globbing code treats `**' specially -- it matches all directories (and files within them, when appropriate) recursively. o There is a new shell option: `dirspell'. When enabled, the filename completion code performs spelling correction on directory names during completion. o The `-t' option to the `read' builtin now supports fractional timeout values. o Brace expansion now allows zero-padding of expanded numeric values and will add the proper number of zeroes to make sure all values contain the same number of digits. o There is a new bash-specific bindable readline function: `dabbrev-expand'. It uses menu completion on a set of words taken from the history list. o The command assigned to a key sequence with `bind -x' now sets two new variables in the environment of the executed command: READLINE_LINE_BUFFER and READLINE_POINT. The command can change the current readline line and cursor position by modifying READLINE_LINE_BUFFER and READLINE_POINT, respectively. o There is a new >>& redirection operator, which appends the standard output and standard error to the named file. o The parser now understands `|&' as a synonym for `2>&1 |', which redirects the standard error for a command through a pipe. o The new `;&' case statement action list terminator causes execution to continue with the action associated with the next pattern in the statement rather than terminating the command. o The new `;;&' case statement action list terminator causes the shell to test the next set of patterns after completing execution of the current action, rather than terminating the command. o The shell understands a new variable: PROMPT_DIRTRIM. When set to an integer value greater than zero, prompt expansion of \w and \W will retain only that number of trailing pathname components and replace the intervening characters with `...'. o There are new case-modifying word expansions: uppercase (^[^]) and lowercase (,[,]). They can work on either the first character or array element, or globally. They accept an optional shell pattern that determines which characters to modify. There is an optionally- configured feature to include capitalization operators. o The shell provides associative array variables, with the appropriate support to create, delete, assign values to, and expand them. o The `declare' builtin now has new -l (convert value to lowercase upon assignment) and -u (convert value to uppercase upon assignment) options. There is an optionally-configurable -c option to capitalize a value at assignment. o There is a new `coproc' reserved word that specifies a coprocess: an asynchronous command run with two pipes connected to the creating shell. Coprocs can be named. The input and output file descriptors and the PID of the coprocess are available to the calling shell in variables with coproc-specific names. o A value of 0 for the -t option to `read' now returns success if there is input available to be read from the specified file descriptor. o CDPATH and GLOBIGNORE are ignored when the shell is running in privileged mode. o New bindable readline functions shell-forward-word and shell-backward-word, which move forward and backward words delimited by shell metacharacters and honor shell quoting. o New bindable readline functions shell-backward-kill-word and shell-kill-word which kill words backward and forward, but use the same word boundaries as shell-forward-word and shell-backward-word. Bash-3.2 contained the following new features: o Bash-3.2 now checks shell scripts for NUL characters rather than non-printing characters when deciding whether or not a script is a binary file. o Quoting the string argument to the [[ command's =~ (regexp) operator now forces string matching, as with the other pattern-matching operators. Bash-3.1 contained the following new features: o Bash-3.1 may now be configured and built in a mode that enforces strict POSIX compliance. o The `+=' assignment operator, which appends to the value of a string or array variable, has been implemented. o It is now possible to ignore case when matching in contexts other than filename generation using the new `nocasematch' shell option. Bash-3.0 contained the following new features: o Features to support the bash debugger have been implemented, and there is a new `extdebug' option to turn the non-default options on o HISTCONTROL is now a colon-separated list of options and has been extended with a new `erasedups' option that will result in only one copy of a command being kept in the history list o Brace expansion has been extended with a new {x..y} form, producing sequences of digits or characters o Timestamps are now kept with history entries, with an option to save and restore them from the history file; there is a new HISTTIMEFORMAT variable describing how to display the timestamps when listing history entries o The `[[' command can now perform extended regular expression (egrep-like) matching, with matched subexpressions placed in the BASH_REMATCH array variable o A new `pipefail' option causes a pipeline to return a failure status if any command in it fails o The `jobs', `kill', and `wait' builtins now accept job control notation in their arguments even if job control is not enabled o The `gettext' package and libintl have been integrated, and the shell messages may be translated into other languages Bash-2.05b introduced the following new features: o support for multibyte characters has been added to both bash and readline o the DEBUG trap is now run *before* simple commands, ((...)) commands, [[...]] conditional commands, and for ((...)) loops o the shell now performs arithmetic in the largest integer size the machine supports (intmax_t) o there is a new \D{...} prompt expansion; passes the `...' to strftime(3) and inserts the result into the expanded prompt o there is a new `here-string' redirection operator: <<< word o when displaying variables, function attributes and definitions are shown separately, allowing them to be re-used as input (attempting to re-use the old output would result in syntax errors). o `read' has a new `-u fd' option to read from a specified file descriptor o the bash debugger in examples/bashdb has been modified to work with the new DEBUG trap semantics, the command set has been made more gdb-like, and the changes to $LINENO make debugging functions work better o the expansion of $LINENO inside a shell function is only relative to the function start if the shell is interactive -- if the shell is running a script, $LINENO expands to the line number in the script. This is as POSIX-2001 requires Bash-2.05a introduced the following new features: o The `printf' builtin has undergone major work o There is a new read-only `shopt' option: login_shell, which is set by login shells and unset otherwise o New `\A' prompt string escape sequence; expanding to time in 24-hour HH:MM format o New `-A group/-g' option to complete and compgen; goes group name completion o New [+-]O invocation option to set and unset `shopt' options at startup o ksh-like `ERR' trap o `for' loops now allow empty word lists after the `in' reserved word o new `hard' and `soft' arguments for the `ulimit' builtin o Readline can be configured to place the user at the same point on the line when retrieving commands from the history list o Readline can be configured to skip `hidden' files (filenames with a leading `.' on Unix) when performing completion Bash-2.05 introduced the following new features: o This version has once again reverted to using locales and strcoll(3) when processing pattern matching bracket expressions, as POSIX requires. o Added a new `--init-file' invocation argument as a synonym for `--rcfile', per the new GNU coding standards. o The /dev/tcp and /dev/udp redirections now accept service names as well as port numbers. o `complete' and `compgen' now take a `-o value' option, which controls some of the aspects of that compspec. Valid values are: default - perform bash default completion if programmable completion produces no matches dirnames - perform directory name completion if programmable completion produces no matches filenames - tell readline that the compspec produces filenames, so it can do things like append slashes to directory names and suppress trailing spaces o A new loadable builtin, realpath, which canonicalizes and expands symlinks in pathname arguments. o When `set' is called without options, it prints function definitions in a way that allows them to be reused as input. This affects `declare' and `declare -p' as well. This only happens when the shell is not in POSIX mode, since POSIX.2 forbids this behavior. Bash-2.04 introduced the following new features: o Programmable word completion with the new `complete' and `compgen' builtins; examples are provided in examples/complete/complete-examples o `history' has a new `-d' option to delete a history entry o `bind' has a new `-x' option to bind key sequences to shell commands o The prompt expansion code has new `\j' and `\l' escape sequences o The `no_empty_cmd_completion' shell option, if enabled, inhibits command completion when TAB is typed on an empty line o `help' has a new `-s' option to print a usage synopsis o New arithmetic operators: var++, var--, ++var, --var, expr1,expr2 (comma) o New ksh93-style arithmetic for command: for ((expr1 ; expr2; expr3 )); do list; done o `read' has new options: `-t', `-n', `-d', `-s' o The redirection code handles several filenames specially: /dev/fd/N, /dev/stdin, /dev/stdout, /dev/stderr o The redirection code now recognizes /dev/tcp/HOST/PORT and /dev/udp/HOST/PORT and tries to open a TCP or UDP socket, respectively, to the specified port on the specified host o The ${!prefix*} expansion has been implemented o A new FUNCNAME variable, which expands to the name of a currently-executing function o The GROUPS variable is no longer readonly o A new shopt `xpg_echo' variable, to control the behavior of echo with respect to backslash-escape sequences at runtime o The NON_INTERACTIVE_LOGIN_SHELLS #define has returned The version of Readline released with Bash-2.04, Readline-4.1, had several new features as well: o Parentheses matching is always compiled into readline, and controllable with the new `blink-matching-paren' variable o The history-search-forward and history-search-backward functions now leave point at the end of the line when the search string is empty, like reverse-search-history, and forward-search-history o A new function for applications: rl_on_new_line_with_prompt() o New variables for applications: rl_already_prompted, and rl_gnu_readline_p Bash-2.03 had very few new features, in keeping with the convention that odd-numbered releases provide mainly bug fixes. A number of new features were added to Readline, mostly at the request of the Cygnus folks. A new shopt option, `restricted_shell', so that startup files can test whether or not the shell was started in restricted mode Filename generation is now performed on the words between ( and ) in compound array assignments (this is really a bug fix) OLDPWD is now auto-exported, as POSIX.2 requires ENV and BASH_ENV are read-only variables in a restricted shell Bash may now be linked against an already-installed Readline library, as long as the Readline library is version 4 or newer All shells begun with the `--login' option will source the login shell startup files, even if the shell is not interactive There were lots of changes to the version of the Readline library released along with Bash-2.03. For a complete list of the changes, read the file CHANGES in the Bash-2.03 distribution. Bash-2.02 contained the following new features: a new version of malloc (based on the old GNU malloc code in previous bash versions) that is more page-oriented, more conservative with memory usage, does not `orphan' large blocks when they are freed, is usable on 64-bit machines, and has allocation checking turned on unconditionally POSIX.2-style globbing character classes ([:alpha:], [:alnum:], etc.) POSIX.2-style globbing equivalence classes POSIX.2-style globbing collating symbols the ksh [[...]] extended conditional command the ksh egrep-style extended pattern matching operators a new `printf' builtin the ksh-like $(<filename) command substitution, which is equivalent to $(cat filename) new tilde prefixes that expand to directories from the directory stack new `**' arithmetic operator to do exponentiation case-insensitive globbing (filename expansion) menu completion a la tcsh `magic-space' history expansion function like tcsh the readline inputrc `language' has a new file inclusion directive ($include) Bash-2.01 contained only a few new features: new `GROUPS' builtin array variable containing the user's group list new bindable readline commands: history-and-alias-expand-line and alias-expand-line Bash-2.0 contained extensive changes and new features from bash-1.14.7. Here's a short list: new `time' reserved word to time pipelines, shell builtins, and shell functions one-dimensional arrays with a new compound assignment statement, appropriate expansion constructs and modifications to some of the builtins (read, declare, etc.) to use them new quoting syntaxes for ANSI-C string expansion and locale-specific string translation new expansions to do substring extraction, pattern replacement, and indirect variable expansion new builtins: `disown' and `shopt' new variables: HISTIGNORE, SHELLOPTS, PIPESTATUS, DIRSTACK, GLOBIGNORE, MACHTYPE, BASH_VERSINFO special handling of many unused or redundant variables removed (e.g., $notify, $glob_dot_filenames, $no_exit_on_failed_exec) dynamic loading of new builtin commands; many loadable examples provided new prompt expansions: \a, \e, \n, \H, \T, \@, \v, \V history and aliases available in shell scripts new readline variables: enable-keypad, mark-directories, input-meta, visible-stats, disable-completion, comment-begin new readline commands to manipulate the mark and operate on the region new readline emacs mode commands and bindings for ksh-88 compatibility updated and extended builtins new DEBUG trap expanded (and now documented) restricted shell mode implementation stuff: autoconf-based configuration nearly all of the bugs reported since version 1.14 have been fixed most builtins converted to use builtin `getopt' for consistency most builtins use -p option to display output in a reusable form (for consistency) grammar tighter and smaller (66 reduce-reduce conflicts gone) lots of code now smaller and faster test suite greatly expanded B2) Are there any user-visible incompatibilities between bash-4.3 and previous bash versions? There are a few incompatibilities between version 4.3 and previous versions. They are detailed in the file COMPAT in the bash distribution. That file is not meant to be all-encompassing; send mail to bash-maintainers@gnu.org (or bug-bash@gnu.org if you would like community discussion) if you find something that's not mentioned there. Section C: Differences from other Unix shells C1) How does bash differ from sh, the Bourne shell? This is a non-comprehensive list of features that differentiate bash from the SVR4.2 shell. The bash manual page explains these more completely. Things bash has that sh does not: long invocation options [+-]O invocation option -l invocation option `!' reserved word to invert pipeline return value `time' reserved word to time pipelines and shell builtins the `function' reserved word the `select' compound command and reserved word arithmetic for command: for ((expr1 ; expr2; expr3 )); do list; done new $'...' and $"..." quoting the $(...) form of command substitution the $(<filename) form of command substitution, equivalent to $(cat filename) the ${#param} parameter value length operator the ${!param} indirect parameter expansion operator the ${!param*} prefix expansion operator the ${param:offset[:length]} parameter substring operator the ${param/pat[/string]} parameter pattern substitution operator expansions to perform substring removal (${p%[%]w}, ${p#[#]w}) expansion of positional parameters beyond $9 with ${num} variables: BASH, BASHPID, BASH_VERSION, BASH_VERSINFO, UID, EUID, REPLY, TIMEFORMAT, PPID, PWD, OLDPWD, SHLVL, RANDOM, SECONDS, LINENO, HISTCMD, HOSTTYPE, OSTYPE, MACHTYPE, HOSTNAME, ENV, PS3, PS4, DIRSTACK, PIPESTATUS, HISTSIZE, HISTFILE, HISTFILESIZE, HISTCONTROL, HISTIGNORE, GLOBIGNORE, GROUPS, PROMPT_COMMAND, FCEDIT, FIGNORE, IGNOREEOF, INPUTRC, SHELLOPTS, OPTERR, HOSTFILE, TMOUT, FUNCNAME, histchars, auto_resume, PROMPT_DIRTRIM, BASHOPTS, BASH_XTRACEFD DEBUG trap ERR trap variable arrays with new compound assignment syntax redirections: <>, &>, >|, <<<, [n]<&word-, [n]>&word-, >>& prompt string special char translation and variable expansion auto-export of variables in initial environment command search finds functions before builtins bash return builtin will exit a file sourced with `.' builtins: cd -/-L/-P/-@, exec -l/-c/-a, echo -e/-E, hash -d/-l/-p/-t. export -n/-f/-p/name=value, pwd -L/-P, read -e/-p/-a/-t/-n/-d/-s/-u/-i/-N, readonly -a/-f/name=value, trap -l, set +o, set -b/-m/-o option/-h/-p/-B/-C/-H/-P, unset -f/-n/-v, ulimit -i/-m/-p/-q/-u/-x, type -a/-p/-t/-f/-P, suspend -f, kill -n, test -o optname/s1 == s2/s1 < s2/s1 > s2/-nt/-ot/-ef/-O/-G/-S/-R bash reads ~/.bashrc for interactive shells, $ENV for non-interactive bash restricted shell mode is more extensive bash allows functions and variables with the same name brace expansion tilde expansion arithmetic expansion with $((...)) and `let' builtin the `[[...]]' extended conditional command process substitution aliases and alias/unalias builtins local variables in functions and `local' builtin readline and command-line editing with programmable completion command history and history/fc builtins csh-like history expansion other new bash builtins: bind, command, compgen, complete, builtin, declare/typeset, dirs, enable, fc, help, history, logout, popd, pushd, disown, shopt, printf, compopt, mapfile exported functions filename generation when using output redirection (command >a*) POSIX.2-style globbing character classes POSIX.2-style globbing equivalence classes POSIX.2-style globbing collating symbols egrep-like extended pattern matching operators case-insensitive pattern matching and globbing variable assignments preceding commands affect only that command, even for builtins and functions posix mode and strict posix conformance redirection to /dev/fd/N, /dev/stdin, /dev/stdout, /dev/stderr, /dev/tcp/host/port, /dev/udp/host/port debugger support, including `caller' builtin and new variables RETURN trap the `+=' assignment operator autocd shell option and behavior command-not-found hook with command_not_found_handle shell function globstar shell option and `**' globbing behavior |& synonym for `2>&1 |' ;& and ;;& case action list terminators case-modifying word expansions and variable attributes associative arrays coprocesses using the `coproc' reserved word and variables shell assignment of a file descriptor used in a redirection to a variable Things sh has that bash does not: uses variable SHACCT to do shell accounting includes `stop' builtin (bash can use alias stop='kill -s STOP') `newgrp' builtin turns on job control if called as `jsh' $TIMEOUT (like bash $TMOUT) `^' is a synonym for `|' new SVR4.2 sh builtins: mldmode, priv Implementation differences: redirection to/from compound commands causes sh to create a subshell bash does not allow unbalanced quotes; sh silently inserts them at EOF bash does not mess with signal 11 sh sets (euid, egid) to (uid, gid) if -p not supplied and uid < 100 bash splits only the results of expansions on IFS, using POSIX.2 field splitting rules; sh splits all words on IFS sh does not allow MAILCHECK to be unset (?) sh does not allow traps on SIGALRM or SIGCHLD bash allows multiple option arguments when invoked (e.g. -x -v); sh allows only a single option argument (`sh -x -v' attempts to open a file named `-v', and, on SunOS 4.1.4, dumps core. On Solaris 2.4 and earlier versions, sh goes into an infinite loop.) sh exits a script if any builtin fails; bash exits only if one of the POSIX.2 `special' builtins fails C2) How does bash differ from the Korn shell, version ksh88? Things bash has or uses that ksh88 does not: long invocation options [-+]O invocation option -l invocation option `!' reserved word arithmetic for command: for ((expr1 ; expr2; expr3 )); do list; done arithmetic in largest machine-supported size (intmax_t) posix mode and posix conformance command hashing tilde expansion for assignment statements that look like $PATH process substitution with named pipes if /dev/fd is not available the ${!param} indirect parameter expansion operator the ${!param*} prefix expansion operator the ${param:offset[:length]} parameter substring operator the ${param/pat[/string]} parameter pattern substitution operator variables: BASH, BASH_VERSION, BASH_VERSINFO, BASHPID, UID, EUID, SHLVL, TIMEFORMAT, HISTCMD, HOSTTYPE, OSTYPE, MACHTYPE, HISTFILESIZE, HISTIGNORE, HISTCONTROL, PROMPT_COMMAND, IGNOREEOF, FIGNORE, INPUTRC, HOSTFILE, DIRSTACK, PIPESTATUS, HOSTNAME, OPTERR, SHELLOPTS, GLOBIGNORE, GROUPS, FUNCNAME, histchars, auto_resume, PROMPT_DIRTRIM prompt expansion with backslash escapes and command substitution redirection: &> (stdout and stderr), <<<, [n]<&word-, [n]>&word-, >>& more extensive and extensible editing and programmable completion builtins: bind, builtin, command, declare, dirs, echo -e/-E, enable, exec -l/-c/-a, fc -s, export -n/-f/-p, hash, help, history, jobs -x/-r/-s, kill -s/-n/-l, local, logout, popd, pushd, read -e/-p/-a/-t/-n/-d/-s/-N, readonly -a/-n/-f/-p, set -o braceexpand/-o histexpand/-o interactive-comments/ -o notify/-o physical/-o posix/-o hashall/-o onecmd/ -h/-B/-C/-b/-H/-P, set +o, suspend, trap -l, type, typeset -a/-F/-p, ulimit -i/-q/-u/-x, umask -S, alias -p, shopt, disown, printf, complete, compgen, compopt, mapfile `!' csh-style history expansion POSIX.2-style globbing character classes POSIX.2-style globbing equivalence classes POSIX.2-style globbing collating symbols egrep-like extended pattern matching operators case-insensitive pattern matching and globbing `**' arithmetic operator to do exponentiation redirection to /dev/fd/N, /dev/stdin, /dev/stdout, /dev/stderr arrays of unlimited size TMOUT is default timeout for `read' and `select' debugger support, including the `caller' builtin RETURN trap Timestamps in history entries {x..y} brace expansion The `+=' assignment operator autocd shell option and behavior command-not-found hook with command_not_found_handle shell function globstar shell option and `**' globbing behavior |& synonym for `2>&1 |' ;& and ;;& case action list terminators case-modifying word expansions and variable attributes associative arrays coprocesses using the `coproc' reserved word and variables shell assignment of a file descriptor used in a redirection to a variable Things ksh88 has or uses that bash does not: tracked aliases (alias -t) variables: ERRNO, FPATH, EDITOR, VISUAL co-processes (bash uses different syntax) weirdly-scoped functions typeset +f to list all function names without definitions text of command history kept in a file, not memory builtins: alias -x, cd old new, newgrp, print, read -p/-s/var?prompt, set -A/-o gmacs/ -o bgnice/-o markdirs/-o trackall/-o viraw/-s, typeset -H/-L/-R/-Z/-A/-ft/-fu/-fx/-t, whence using environment to pass attributes of exported variables arithmetic evaluation done on arguments to some builtins reads .profile from $PWD when invoked as login shell Implementation differences: ksh runs last command of a pipeline in parent shell context bash has brace expansion by default (ksh88 compile-time option) bash has fixed startup file for all interactive shells; ksh reads $ENV bash has exported functions bash command search finds functions before builtins bash waits for all commands in pipeline to exit before returning status emacs-mode editing has some slightly different key bindings C3) Which new features in ksh-93 are not in bash, and which are? This list is current through ksh93v (10/08/2013) New things in ksh-93 not in bash-4.3: floating point arithmetic, variables, and constants math library functions, including user-defined math functions ${!name[sub]} name of subscript for associative array `.' is allowed in variable names to create a hierarchical namespace more extensive compound assignment syntax discipline functions KEYBD trap variables: .sh.edchar, .sh.edmode, .sh.edcol, .sh.edtext, .sh.version, .sh.name, .sh.subscript, .sh.value, .sh.match, HISTEDIT, .sh.sig, .sh.stats, .sh.siginfo, .sh.pwdfd, .sh.op_astbin, .sh.pool backreferences in pattern matching (\N) `&' operator in pattern lists for matching (match all instead of any) exit statuses between 0 and 255 FPATH and PATH mixing lexical scoping for local variables in `ksh' functions no scoping for local variables in `POSIX' functions $'' \C[.collating-element.] escape sequence -C/-I invocation options print -f (bash uses printf) and rest of print builtin options printf %(type)q, %#q `fc' has been renamed to `hist' `.' can execute shell functions getopts -a printf %B, %H, %P, %R, %Z modifiers, output base for %d, `=' flag read -n/-N differ/-v/-S set -o showme/-o multiline (bash default) set -K kill -Q/-q/-L trap -a `sleep' and `getconf' builtins (bash has loadable versions) [[ -R name ]] (checks whether or not name is a nameref) typeset -C/-S/-T/-X/-h/-s/-c/-M experimental `type' definitions (a la typedef) using typeset array expansions ${array[sub1..sub2]} and ${!array[sub1..sub2]} associative array assignments using `;' as element separator command substitution $(n<#) expands to current byte offset for fd N new '${ ' form of command substitution, executed in current shell new >;/<>;/<#pat/<##pat/<#/># redirections brace expansion printf-like formats CHLD trap triggered by SIGSTOP and SIGCONT ~{fd} expansion, which replaces fd with the corresponding path name $"string" expanded when referenced rather than when first parsed job "pools", which allow a collection of jobs to be managed as a unit New things in ksh-93 present in bash-4.3: associative arrays [n]<&word- and [n]>&word- redirections (combination dup and close) for (( expr1; expr2; expr3 )) ; do list; done - arithmetic for command ?:, ++, --, `expr1 , expr2' arithmetic operators expansions: ${!param}, ${param:offset[:len]}, ${param/pat[/str]}, ${!param*} compound array assignment negative subscripts for indexed array variables the `!' reserved word loadable builtins -- but ksh uses `builtin' while bash uses `enable' new $'...' and $"..." quoting FIGNORE (but bash uses GLOBIGNORE), HISTCMD brace expansion and set -B changes to kill builtin `command', `builtin', `disown' builtins echo -e exec -c/-a printf %T modifier read -A (bash uses read -a) read -t/-d trap -p `.' restores the positional parameters when it completes set -o notify/-C set -o pipefail set -G (-o globstar) and ** POSIX.2 `test' umask -S unalias -a command and arithmetic substitution performed on PS1, PS4, and ENV command name completion, TAB displaying possible completions ENV processed only for interactive shells The `+=' assignment operator the `;&' case statement "fallthrough" pattern list terminator csh-style history expansion and set -H negative offsets in ${param:offset:length} redirection operators preceded with {varname} to store fd number in varname DEBUG can force skipping following command [[ -v var ]] operator (checks whether or not var is set) typeset -n and `nameref' variables process substitutions work without /dev/fd Section D: Why does bash do some things differently than other Unix shells? D1) Why does bash run a different version of `command' than `which command' says it will? On many systems, `which' is actually a csh script that assumes you're running csh. In tcsh, `which' and its cousin `where' are builtins. On other Unix systems, `which' is a perl script that uses the PATH environment variable. Many Linux distributions use GNU `which', which is a C program that can understand shell aliases. The csh script version reads the csh startup files from your home directory and uses those to determine which `command' will be invoked. Since bash doesn't use any of those startup files, there's a good chance that your bash environment differs from your csh environment. The bash `type' builtin does everything `which' does, and will report correct results for the running shell. If you're really wedded to the name `which', try adding the following function definition to your .bashrc: which() { builtin type "$@" } If you're moving from tcsh and would like to bring `where' along as well, use this function: where() { builtin type -a "$@" } D2) Why doesn't bash treat brace expansions exactly like csh? The only difference between bash and csh brace expansion is that bash requires a brace expression to contain at least one unquoted comma if it is to be expanded. Any brace-surrounded word not containing an unquoted comma is left unchanged by the brace expansion code. This affords the greatest degree of sh compatibility. Bash, ksh, zsh, and pd-ksh all implement brace expansion this way. D3) Why doesn't bash have csh variable modifiers? Posix has specified a more powerful, albeit somewhat more cryptic, mechanism cribbed from ksh, and bash implements it. ${parameter%word} Remove smallest suffix pattern. The WORD is expanded to produce a pattern. It then expands to the value of PARAMETER, with the smallest portion of the suffix matched by the pattern deleted. x=file.c echo ${x%.c}.o -->file.o ${parameter%%word} Remove largest suffix pattern. The WORD is expanded to produce a pattern. It then expands to the value of PARAMETER, with the largest portion of the suffix matched by the pattern deleted. x=posix/src/std echo ${x%%/*} -->posix ${parameter#word} Remove smallest prefix pattern. The WORD is expanded to produce a pattern. It then expands to the value of PARAMETER, with the smallest portion of the prefix matched by the pattern deleted. x=$HOME/src/cmd echo ${x#$HOME} -->/src/cmd ${parameter##word} Remove largest prefix pattern. The WORD is expanded to produce a pattern. It then expands to the value of PARAMETER, with the largest portion of the prefix matched by the pattern deleted. x=/one/two/three echo ${x##*/} -->three Given a=/a/b/c/d b=b.xxx csh bash result --- ---- ------ $a:h ${a%/*} /a/b/c $a:t ${a##*/} d $b:r ${b%.*} b $b:e ${b##*.} xxx D4) How can I make my csh aliases work when I convert to bash? Bash uses a different syntax to support aliases than csh does. The details can be found in the documentation. We have provided a shell script which does most of the work of conversion for you; this script can be found in ./examples/misc/aliasconv.sh. Here is how you use it: Start csh in the normal way for you. (e.g., `csh') Pipe the output of `alias' through `aliasconv.sh', saving the results into `bash_aliases': alias | bash aliasconv.sh >bash_aliases Edit `bash_aliases', carefully reading through any created functions. You will need to change the names of some csh specific variables to the bash equivalents. The script converts $cwd to $PWD, $term to $TERM, $home to $HOME, $user to $USER, and $prompt to $PS1. You may also have to add quotes to avoid unwanted expansion. For example, the csh alias: alias cd 'cd \!*; echo $cwd' is converted to the bash function: cd () { command cd "$@"; echo $PWD ; } The only thing that needs to be done is to quote $PWD: cd () { command cd "$@"; echo "$PWD" ; } Merge the edited file into your ~/.bashrc. There is an additional, more ambitious, script in examples/misc/cshtobash that attempts to convert your entire csh environment to its bash equivalent. This script can be run as simply `cshtobash' to convert your normal interactive environment, or as `cshtobash ~/.login' to convert your login environment. D5) How can I pipe standard output and standard error from one command to another, like csh does with `|&'? Use command 2>&1 | command2 The key is to remember that piping is performed before redirection, so file descriptor 1 points to the pipe when it is duplicated onto file descriptor 2. D6) Now that I've converted from ksh to bash, are there equivalents to ksh features like autoloaded functions and the `whence' command? There are features in ksh-88 and ksh-93 that do not have direct bash equivalents. Most, however, can be emulated with very little trouble. ksh-88 feature Bash equivalent -------------- --------------- compiled-in aliases set up aliases in .bashrc; some ksh aliases are bash builtins (hash, history, type) coprocesses named pipe pairs (one for read, one for write) typeset +f declare -F cd, print, whence function substitutes in examples/functions/kshenv autoloaded functions examples/functions/autoload is the same as typeset -fu read var?prompt read -p prompt var ksh-93 feature Bash equivalent -------------- --------------- sleep, getconf Bash has loadable versions in examples/loadables ${.sh.version} $BASH_VERSION print -f printf hist alias hist=fc $HISTEDIT $FCEDIT Section E: How can I get bash to do certain things, and why does bash do things the way it does? E1) Why is the bash builtin `test' slightly different from /bin/test? The specific example used here is [ ! x -o x ], which is false. Bash's builtin `test' implements the Posix.2 spec, which can be summarized as follows (the wording is due to David Korn): Here is the set of rules for processing test arguments. 0 Args: False 1 Arg: True iff argument is not null. 2 Args: If first arg is !, True iff second argument is null. If first argument is unary, then true if unary test is true Otherwise error. 3 Args: If second argument is a binary operator, do binary test of $1 $3 If first argument is !, negate two argument test of $2 $3 If first argument is `(' and third argument is `)', do the one-argument test of the second argument. Otherwise error. 4 Args: If first argument is !, negate three argument test of $2 $3 $4. Otherwise unspecified 5 or more Args: unspecified. (Historical shells would use their current algorithm). The operators -a and -o are considered binary operators for the purpose of the 3 Arg case. As you can see, the test becomes (not (x or x)), which is false. E2) Why does bash sometimes say `Broken pipe'? If a sequence of commands appears in a pipeline, and one of the reading commands finishes before the writer has finished, the writer receives a SIGPIPE signal. Many other shells special-case SIGPIPE as an exit status in the pipeline and do not report it. For example, in: ps -aux | head `head' can finish before `ps' writes all of its output, and ps will try to write on a pipe without a reader. In that case, bash will print `Broken pipe' to stderr when ps is killed by a SIGPIPE. As of bash-3.1, bash does not report SIGPIPE errors by default. You can build a version of bash that will report such errors. E3) When I have terminal escape sequences in my prompt, why does bash wrap lines at the wrong column? Readline, the line editing library that bash uses, does not know that the terminal escape sequences do not take up space on the screen. The redisplay code assumes, unless told otherwise, that each character in the prompt is a `printable' character that takes up one character position on the screen. You can use the bash prompt expansion facility (see the PROMPTING section in the manual page) to tell readline that sequences of characters in the prompt strings take up no screen space. Use the \[ escape to begin a sequence of non-printing characters, and the \] escape to signal the end of such a sequence. E4) If I pipe the output of a command into `read variable', why doesn't the output show up in $variable when the read command finishes? This has to do with the parent-child relationship between Unix processes. It affects all commands run in pipelines, not just simple calls to `read'. For example, piping a command's output into a `while' loop that repeatedly calls `read' will result in the same behavior. Each element of a pipeline, even a builtin or shell function, runs in a separate process, a child of the shell running the pipeline. A subprocess cannot affect its parent's environment. When the `read' command sets the variable to the input, that variable is set only in the subshell, not the parent shell. When the subshell exits, the value of the variable is lost. Many pipelines that end with `read variable' can be converted into command substitutions, which will capture the output of a specified command. The output can then be assigned to a variable: grep ^gnu /usr/lib/news/active | wc -l | read ngroup can be converted into ngroup=$(grep ^gnu /usr/lib/news/active | wc -l) This does not, unfortunately, work to split the text among multiple variables, as read does when given multiple variable arguments. If you need to do this, you can either use the command substitution above to read the output into a variable and chop up the variable using the bash pattern removal expansion operators or use some variant of the following approach. Say /usr/local/bin/ipaddr is the following shell script: #! /bin/sh host `hostname` | awk '/address/ {print $NF}' Instead of using /usr/local/bin/ipaddr | read A B C D to break the local machine's IP address into separate octets, use OIFS="$IFS" IFS=. set -- $(/usr/local/bin/ipaddr) IFS="$OIFS" A="$1" B="$2" C="$3" D="$4" Beware, however, that this will change the shell's positional parameters. If you need them, you should save them before doing this. This is the general approach -- in most cases you will not need to set $IFS to a different value. Some other user-supplied alternatives include: read A B C D << HERE $(IFS=.; echo $(/usr/local/bin/ipaddr)) HERE and, where process substitution is available, read A B C D < <(IFS=.; echo $(/usr/local/bin/ipaddr)) E5) I have a bunch of shell scripts that use backslash-escaped characters in arguments to `echo'. Bash doesn't interpret these characters. Why not, and how can I make it understand them? This is the behavior of echo on most Unix System V machines. The bash builtin `echo' is modeled after the 9th Edition Research Unix version of `echo'. It does not interpret backslash-escaped characters in its argument strings by default; it requires the use of the -e option to enable the interpretation. The System V echo provides no way to disable the special characters; the bash echo has a -E option to disable them. There is a configuration option that will make bash behave like the System V echo and interpret things like `\t' by default. Run configure with the --enable-xpg-echo-default option to turn this on. Be aware that this will cause some of the tests run when you type `make tests' to fail. There is a shell option, `xpg_echo', settable with `shopt', that will change the behavior of echo at runtime. Enabling this option turns on expansion of backslash-escape sequences. E6) Why doesn't a while or for loop get suspended when I type ^Z? This is a consequence of how job control works on Unix. The only thing that can be suspended is the process group. This is a single command or pipeline of commands that the shell forks and executes. When you run a while or for loop, the only thing that the shell forks and executes are any commands in the while loop test and commands in the loop bodies. These, therefore, are the only things that can be suspended when you type ^Z. If you want to be able to stop the entire loop, you need to put it within parentheses, which will force the loop into a subshell that may be stopped (and subsequently restarted) as a single unit. E7) What about empty for loops in Makefiles? It's fairly common to see constructs like this in automatically-generated Makefiles: SUBDIRS = @SUBDIRS@ ... subdirs-clean: for d in ${SUBDIRS}; do \ ( cd $$d && ${MAKE} ${MFLAGS} clean ) \ done When SUBDIRS is empty, this results in a command like this being passed to bash: for d in ; do ( cd $d && ${MAKE} ${MFLAGS} clean ) done In versions of bash before bash-2.05a, this was a syntax error. If the reserved word `in' was present, a word must follow it before the semicolon or newline. The language in the manual page referring to the list of words being empty referred to the list after it is expanded. These versions of bash required that there be at least one word following the `in' when the construct was parsed. The idiomatic Makefile solution is something like: SUBDIRS = @SUBDIRS@ subdirs-clean: subdirs=$SUBDIRS ; for d in $$subdirs; do \ ( cd $$d && ${MAKE} ${MFLAGS} clean ) \ done The latest updated POSIX standard has changed this: the word list is no longer required. Bash versions 2.05a and later accept the new syntax. E8) Why does the arithmetic evaluation code complain about `08'? The bash arithmetic evaluation code (used for `let', $(()), (()), and in other places), interprets a leading `0' in numeric constants as denoting an octal number, and a leading `0x' as denoting hexadecimal. This is in accordance with the POSIX.2 spec, section 2.9.2.1, which states that arithmetic constants should be handled as signed long integers as defined by the ANSI/ISO C standard. The POSIX.2 interpretation committee has confirmed this: http://www.pasc.org/interps/unofficial/db/p1003.2/pasc-1003.2-173.html E9) Why does the pattern matching expression [A-Z]* match files beginning with every letter except `z'? Bash-2.03, Bash-2.05 and later versions honor the current locale setting when processing ranges within pattern matching bracket expressions ([A-Z]). This is what POSIX.2 and SUSv3/XPG6 specify. The behavior of the matcher in bash-2.05 and later versions depends on the current LC_COLLATE setting. Setting this variable to `C' or `POSIX' will result in the traditional behavior ([A-Z] matches all uppercase ASCII characters). Many other locales, including the en_US locale (the default on many US versions of Linux) collate the upper and lower case letters like this: AaBb...Zz which means that [A-Z] matches every letter except `z'. Others collate like aAbBcC...zZ which means that [A-Z] matches every letter except `a'. The portable way to specify upper case letters is [:upper:] instead of A-Z; lower case may be specified as [:lower:] instead of a-z. Look at the manual pages for setlocale(3), strcoll(3), and, if it is present, locale(1). If you have locale(1), you can use it to find your current locale information even if you do not have any of the LC_ variables set. My advice is to put export LC_COLLATE=C into /etc/profile and inspect any shell scripts run from cron for constructs like [A-Z]. This will prevent things like rm [A-Z]* from removing every file in the current directory except those beginning with `z' and still allow individual users to change the collation order. Users may put the above command into their own profiles as well, of course. E10) Why does `cd //' leave $PWD as `//'? POSIX.2, in its description of `cd', says that *three* or more leading slashes may be replaced with a single slash when canonicalizing the current working directory. This is, I presume, for historical compatibility. Certain versions of Unix, and early network file systems, used paths of the form //hostname/path to access `path' on server `hostname'. E11) If I resize my xterm while another program is running, why doesn't bash notice the change? This is another issue that deals with job control. The kernel maintains a notion of a current terminal process group. Members of this process group (processes whose process group ID is equal to the current terminal process group ID) receive terminal-generated signals like SIGWINCH. (For more details, see the JOB CONTROL section of the bash man page.) If a terminal is resized, the kernel sends SIGWINCH to each member of the terminal's current process group (the `foreground' process group). When bash is running with job control enabled, each pipeline (which may be a single command) is run in its own process group, different from bash's process group. This foreground process group receives the SIGWINCH; bash does not. Bash has no way of knowing that the terminal has been resized. There is a `checkwinsize' option, settable with the `shopt' builtin, that will cause bash to check the window size and adjust its idea of the terminal's dimensions each time a process stops or exits and returns control of the terminal to bash. Enable it with `shopt -s checkwinsize'. E12) Why don't negative offsets in substring expansion work like I expect? When substring expansion of the form ${param:offset[:length} is used, an `offset' that evaluates to a number less than zero counts back from the end of the expanded value of $param. When a negative `offset' begins with a minus sign, however, unexpected things can happen. Consider a=12345678 echo ${a:-4} intending to print the last four characters of $a. The problem is that ${param:-word} already has a well-defined meaning: expand to word if the expanded value of param is unset or null, and $param otherwise. To use negative offsets that begin with a minus sign, separate the minus sign and the colon with a space. E13) Why does filename completion misbehave if a colon appears in the filename? Filename completion (and word completion in general) may appear to behave improperly if there is a colon in the word to be completed. The colon is special to readline's word completion code: it is one of the characters that breaks words for the completer. Readline uses these characters in sort of the same way that bash uses $IFS: they break or separate the words the completion code hands to the application-specific or default word completion functions. The original intent was to make it easy to edit colon-separated lists (such as $PATH in bash) in various applications using readline for input. This is complicated by the fact that some versions of the popular `bash-completion' programmable completion package have problems with the default completion behavior in the presence of colons. The current set of completion word break characters is available in bash as the value of the COMP_WORDBREAKS variable. Removing `:' from that value is enough to make the colon not special to completion: COMP_WORDBREAKS=${COMP_WORDBREAKS//:} You can also quote the colon with a backslash to achieve the same result temporarily. E14) Why does quoting the pattern argument to the regular expression matching conditional operator (=~) cause regexp matching to stop working? In versions of bash prior to bash-3.2, the effect of quoting the regular expression argument to the [[ command's =~ operator was not specified. The practical effect was that double-quoting the pattern argument required backslashes to quote special pattern characters, which interfered with the backslash processing performed by double-quoted word expansion and was inconsistent with how the == shell pattern matching operator treated quoted characters. In bash-3.2, the shell was changed to internally quote characters in single- and double-quoted string arguments to the =~ operator, which suppresses the special meaning of the characters special to regular expression processing (`.', `[', `\', `(', `), `*', `+', `?', `{', `|', `^', and `$') and forces them to be matched literally. This is consistent with how the `==' pattern matching operator treats quoted portions of its pattern argument. Since the treatment of quoted string arguments was changed, several issues have arisen, chief among them the problem of white space in pattern arguments and the differing treatment of quoted strings between bash-3.1 and bash-3.2. Both problems may be solved by using a shell variable to hold the pattern. Since word splitting is not performed when expanding shell variables in all operands of the [[ command, this allows users to quote patterns as they wish when assigning the variable, then expand the values to a single string that may contain whitespace. The first problem may be solved by using backslashes or any other quoting mechanism to escape the white space in the patterns. Bash-4.0 introduces the concept of a `compatibility level', controlled by several options to the `shopt' builtin. If the `compat31' option is enabled, bash reverts to the bash-3.1 behavior with respect to quoting the rhs of the =~ operator. E15) Tell me more about the shell compatibility level. Bash-4.0 introduced the concept of a `shell compatibility level', specified as a set of options to the shopt builtin (compat31, compat32, compat40 at this writing). There is only one current compatibility level -- each option is mutually exclusive. This list does not mention behavior that is standard for a particular version (e.g., setting compat32 means that quoting the rhs of the regexp matching operator quotes special regexp characters in the word, which is default behavior in bash-3.2 and above). compat31 set - the < and > operators to the [[ command do not consider the current locale when comparing strings - quoting the rhs of the regexp matching operator (=~) has no special effect compat32 set - the < and > operators to the [[ command do not consider the current locale when comparing strings compat40 set - the < and > operators to the [[ command do not consider the current locale when comparing strings - interrupting a command list such as "a ; b ; c" causes the execution of the entire list to be aborted (in versions before bash-4.0, interrupting one command in a list caused the next to be executed) compat41 set - interrupting a command list such as "a ; b ; c" causes the execution of the entire list to be aborted (in versions before bash-4.1, interrupting one command in a list caused the next to be executed) - when in posix mode, single quotes in the `word' portion of a double-quoted parameter expansion define a new quoting context and are treated specially compat42 set - the replacement string in double-quoted pattern substitution is not run through quote removal, as in previous versions Section F: Things to watch out for on certain Unix versions F1) Why can't I use command line editing in my `cmdtool'? The problem is `cmdtool' and bash fighting over the input. When scrolling is enabled in a cmdtool window, cmdtool puts the tty in `raw mode' to permit command-line editing using the mouse for applications that cannot do it themselves. As a result, bash and cmdtool each try to read keyboard input immediately, with neither getting enough of it to be useful. This mode also causes cmdtool to not implement many of the terminal functions and control sequences appearing in the `sun-cmd' termcap entry. For a more complete explanation, see that file examples/suncmd.termcap in the bash distribution. `xterm' is a better choice, and gets along with bash much more smoothly. If you must use cmdtool, you can use the termcap description in examples/suncmd.termcap. Set the TERMCAP variable to the terminal description contained in that file, i.e. TERMCAP='Mu|sun-cmd:am:bs:km:pt:li#34:co#80:cl=^L:ce=\E[K:cd=\E[J:rs=\E[s:' Then export TERMCAP and start a new cmdtool window from that shell. The bash command-line editing should behave better in the new cmdtool. If this works, you can put the assignment to TERMCAP in your bashrc file. F2) I built bash on Solaris 2. Why do globbing expansions and filename completion chop off the first few characters of each filename? This is the consequence of building bash on SunOS 5 and linking with the libraries in /usr/ucblib, but using the definitions and structures from files in /usr/include. The actual conflict is between the dirent structure in /usr/include/dirent.h and the struct returned by the version of `readdir' in libucb.a (a 4.3-BSD style `struct direct'). Make sure you've got /usr/ccs/bin ahead of /usr/ucb in your $PATH when configuring and building bash. This will ensure that you use /usr/ccs/bin/cc or acc instead of /usr/ucb/cc and that you link with libc before libucb. If you have installed the Sun C compiler, you may also need to put /usr/ccs/bin and /opt/SUNWspro/bin into your $PATH before /usr/ucb. F3) Why does bash dump core after I interrupt username completion or `~user' tilde expansion on a machine running NIS? This is a famous and long-standing bug in the SunOS YP (sorry, NIS) client library, which is part of libc. The YP library code keeps static state -- a pointer into the data returned from the server. When YP initializes itself (setpwent), it looks at this pointer and calls free on it if it's non-null. So far, so good. If one of the YP functions is interrupted during getpwent (the exact function is interpretwithsave()), and returns NULL, the pointer is freed without being reset to NULL, and the function returns. The next time getpwent is called, it sees that this pointer is non-null, calls free, and the bash free() blows up because it's being asked to free freed memory. The traditional Unix mallocs allow memory to be freed multiple times; that's probably why this has never been fixed. You can run configure with the `--without-gnu-malloc' option to use the C library malloc and avoid the problem. F4) I'm running SVR4.2. Why is the line erased every time I type `@'? The `@' character is the default `line kill' character in most versions of System V, including SVR4.2. You can change this character to whatever you want using `stty'. For example, to change the line kill character to control-u, type stty kill ^U where the `^' and `U' can be two separate characters. F5) Why does bash report syntax errors when my C News scripts use a redirection before a subshell command? The actual command in question is something like < file ( command ) According to the grammar given in the POSIX.2 standard, this construct is, in fact, a syntax error. Redirections may only precede `simple commands'. A subshell construct such as the above is one of the shell's `compound commands'. A redirection may only follow a compound command. This affects the mechanical transformation of commands that use `cat' to pipe a file into a command (a favorite Useless-Use-Of-Cat topic on comp.unix.shell). While most commands of the form cat file | command can be converted to `< file command', shell control structures such as loops and subshells require `command < file'. The file CWRU/sh-redir-hack in the bash distribution is an (unofficial) patch to parse.y that will modify the grammar to support this construct. It will not apply with `patch'; you must modify parse.y by hand. Note that if you apply this, you must recompile with -DREDIRECTION_HACK. This introduces a large number of reduce/reduce conflicts into the shell grammar. F6) Why can't I use vi-mode editing on Red Hat Linux 6.1? The short answer is that Red Hat screwed up. The long answer is that they shipped an /etc/inputrc that only works for emacs mode editing, and then screwed all the vi users by setting INPUTRC to /etc/inputrc in /etc/profile. The short fix is to do one of the following: remove or rename /etc/inputrc, set INPUTRC=~/.inputrc in ~/.bashrc (or .bash_profile, but make sure you export it if you do), remove the assignment to INPUTRC from /etc/profile, add set keymap emacs to the beginning of /etc/inputrc, or bracket the key bindings in /etc/inputrc with these lines $if mode=emacs [...] $endif F7) Why do bash-2.05a and bash-2.05b fail to compile `printf.def' on HP/UX 11.x? HP/UX's support for long double is imperfect at best. GCC will support it without problems, but the HP C library functions like strtold(3) and printf(3) don't actually work with long doubles. HP implemented a `long_double' type as a 4-element array of 32-bit ints, and that is what the library functions use. The ANSI C `long double' type is a 128-bit floating point scalar. The easiest fix, until HP fixes things up, is to edit the generated config.h and #undef the HAVE_LONG_DOUBLE line. After doing that, the compilation should complete successfully. Section G: How can I get bash to do certain common things? G1) How can I get bash to read and display eight-bit characters? This is a process requiring several steps. First, you must ensure that the `physical' data path is a full eight bits. For xterms, for example, the `vt100' resources `eightBitInput' and `eightBitOutput' should be set to `true'. Once you have set up an eight-bit path, you must tell the kernel and tty driver to leave the eighth bit of characters alone when processing keyboard input. Use `stty' to do this: stty cs8 -istrip -parenb For old BSD-style systems, you can use stty pass8 You may also need stty even odd Finally, you need to tell readline that you will be inputting and displaying eight-bit characters. You use readline variables to do this. These variables can be set in your .inputrc or using the bash `bind' builtin. Here's an example using `bind': bash$ bind 'set convert-meta off' bash$ bind 'set meta-flag on' bash$ bind 'set output-meta on' The `set' commands between the single quotes may also be placed in ~/.inputrc. The script examples/scripts.noah/meta.bash encapsulates the bind commands in a shell function. G2) How do I write a function `x' to replace builtin command `x', but still invoke the command from within the function? This is why the `command' and `builtin' builtins exist. The `command' builtin executes the command supplied as its first argument, skipping over any function defined with that name. The `builtin' builtin executes the builtin command given as its first argument directly. For example, to write a function to replace `cd' that writes the hostname and current directory to an xterm title bar, use something like the following: cd() { builtin cd "$@" && xtitle "$HOST: $PWD" } This could also be written using `command' instead of `builtin'; the version above is marginally more efficient. G3) How can I find the value of a shell variable whose name is the value of another shell variable? Versions of Bash newer than Bash-2.0 support this directly. You can use ${!var} For example, the following sequence of commands will echo `z': var1=var2 var2=z echo ${!var1} For sh compatibility, use the `eval' builtin. The important thing to remember is that `eval' expands the arguments you give it again, so you need to quote the parts of the arguments that you want `eval' to act on. For example, this expression prints the value of the last positional parameter: eval echo \"\$\{$#\}\" The expansion of the quoted portions of this expression will be deferred until `eval' runs, while the `$#' will be expanded before `eval' is executed. In versions of bash later than bash-2.0, echo ${!#} does the same thing. This is not the same thing as ksh93 `nameref' variables, though the syntax is similar. Namerefs are available bash version 4.3, and work as in ksh93. G4) How can I make the bash `time' reserved word print timing output that looks like the output from my system's /usr/bin/time? The bash command timing code looks for a variable `TIMEFORMAT' and uses its value as a format string to decide how to display the timing statistics. The value of TIMEFORMAT is a string with `%' escapes expanded in a fashion similar in spirit to printf(3). The manual page explains the meanings of the escape sequences in the format string. If TIMEFORMAT is not set, bash acts as if the following assignment had been performed: TIMEFORMAT=$'\nreal\t%3lR\nuser\t%3lU\nsys\t%3lS' The POSIX.2 default time format (used by `time -p command') is TIMEFORMAT=$'real %2R\nuser %2U\nsys %2S' The BSD /usr/bin/time format can be emulated with: TIMEFORMAT=$'\t%1R real\t%1U user\t%1S sys' The System V /usr/bin/time format can be emulated with: TIMEFORMAT=$'\nreal\t%1R\nuser\t%1U\nsys\t%1S' The ksh format can be emulated with: TIMEFORMAT=$'\nreal\t%2lR\nuser\t%2lU\nsys\t%2lS' G5) How do I get the current directory into my prompt? Bash provides a number of backslash-escape sequences which are expanded when the prompt string (PS1 or PS2) is displayed. The full list is in the manual page. The \w expansion gives the full pathname of the current directory, with a tilde (`~') substituted for the current value of $HOME. The \W expansion gives the basename of the current directory. To put the full pathname of the current directory into the path without any tilde substitution, use $PWD. Here are some examples: PS1='\w$ ' # current directory with tilde PS1='\W$ ' # basename of current directory PS1='$PWD$ ' # full pathname of current directory The single quotes are important in the final example to prevent $PWD from being expanded when the assignment to PS1 is performed. G6) How can I rename "*.foo" to "*.bar"? Use the pattern removal functionality described in D3. The following `for' loop will do the trick: for f in *.foo; do mv $f ${f%foo}bar done G7) How can I translate a filename from uppercase to lowercase? The script examples/functions/lowercase, originally written by John DuBois, will do the trick. The converse is left as an exercise. G8) How can I write a filename expansion (globbing) pattern that will match all files in the current directory except "." and ".."? You must have set the `extglob' shell option using `shopt -s extglob' to use this: echo .!(.|) * A solution that works without extended globbing is given in the Unix Shell FAQ, posted periodically to comp.unix.shell. It's a variant of echo .[!.]* ..?* * (The ..?* catches files with names of three or more characters beginning with `..') Section H: Where do I go from here? H1) How do I report bugs in bash, and where should I look for fixes and advice? Use the `bashbug' script to report bugs. It is built and installed at the same time as bash. It provides a standard template for reporting a problem and automatically includes information about your configuration and build environment. `bashbug' sends its reports to bug-bash@gnu.org, which is a large mailing list gatewayed to the usenet newsgroup gnu.bash.bug. Bug fixes, answers to questions, and announcements of new releases are all posted to gnu.bash.bug. Discussions concerning bash features and problems also take place there. To reach the bash maintainers directly, send mail to bash-maintainers@gnu.org. H2) What kind of bash documentation is there? First, look in the doc directory in the bash distribution. It should contain at least the following files: bash.1 an extensive, thorough Unix-style manual page builtins.1 a manual page covering just bash builtin commands bashref.texi a reference manual in GNU tex`info format bashref.info an info version of the reference manual FAQ this file article.ms text of an article written for The Linux Journal readline.3 a man page describing readline Postscript, HTML, and ASCII files created from the above source are available in the documentation distribution. There is additional documentation available for anonymous FTP from host ftp.cwru.edu in the `pub/bash' directory. Cameron Newham and Bill Rosenblatt have written a book on bash, published by O'Reilly and Associates. The book is based on Bill Rosenblatt's Korn Shell book. The title is ``Learning the Bash Shell'', and the ISBN number of the third edition, published in March, 2005, is 0-596-00965-8. Look for it in fine bookstores near you. This edition of the book has been updated to cover bash-3.0. The GNU Bash Reference Manual has been published as a printed book by Network Theory Ltd (Paperback, ISBN: 0-9541617-7-7, Nov. 2006). It covers bash-3.2 and is available from most online bookstores (see http://www.network-theory.co.uk/bash/manual/ for details). The publisher will donate $1 to the Free Software Foundation for each copy sold. Arnold Robbins and Nelson Beebe have written ``Classic Shell Scripting'', published by O'Reilly. The first edition, with ISBN number 0-596-00595-4, was published in May, 2005. Chris F. A. Johnson, a frequent contributor to comp.unix.shell and gnu.bash.bug, has written ``Shell Scripting Recipes: A Problem-Solution Approach,'' a new book on shell scripting, concentrating on features of the POSIX standard helpful to shell script writers. The first edition from Apress, with ISBN number 1-59059-471-1, was published in May, 2005. H3) What's coming in future versions? These are features I hope to include in a future version of bash. Rocky Bernstein's bash debugger (support is included with bash-4.0) H4) What's on the bash `wish list' for future versions? These are features that may or may not appear in a future version of bash. breaking some of the shell functionality into embeddable libraries a module system like zsh's, using dynamic loading like builtins a bash programmer's guide with a chapter on creating loadable builtins a better loadable interface to perl with access to the shell builtins and variables (contributions gratefully accepted) ksh93-like `xx.yy' variables (including some of the .sh.* variables) and associated discipline functions Some of the new ksh93 pattern matching operators, like backreferencing H5) When will the next release appear? The next version will appear sometime in 2015. Never make predictions. This document is Copyright 1995-2014 by Chester Ramey. Permission is hereby granted, without written agreement and without license or royalty fees, to use, copy, and distribute this document for any purpose, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies of this document and that the contents of this document remain unaltered. PK �!\IVN�5� 5� bash.htmlnu �[��� <HTML><HEAD> <TITLE>BASH(1) Manual Page</TITLE> </HEAD> <BODY><TABLE WIDTH=100%> <TR> <TH ALIGN=LEFT width=33%>BASH(1)<TH ALIGN=CENTER width=33%>2020 October 29<TH ALIGN=RIGHT width=33%>BASH(1) </TR> </TABLE> <BR><A HREF="#index">Index</A> <HR> <A NAME="lbAB"> </A> <H3>NAME</H3> bash - GNU Bourne-Again SHell <A NAME="lbAC"> </A> <H3>SYNOPSIS</H3> <B>bash</B> [options] [command_string | file] <A NAME="lbAD"> </A> <H3>COPYRIGHT</H3> Bash is Copyright © 1989-2020 by the Free Software Foundation, Inc. <A NAME="lbAE"> </A> <H3>DESCRIPTION</H3> <B>Bash</B> is an <B>sh</B>-compatible command language interpreter that executes commands read from the standard input or from a file. <B>Bash</B> also incorporates useful features from the <I>Korn</I> and <I>C</I> shells (<B>ksh</B> and <B>csh</B>). <P> <B>Bash</B> is intended to be a conformant implementation of the Shell and Utilities portion of the IEEE POSIX specification (IEEE Standard 1003.1). <B>Bash</B> can be configured to be POSIX-conformant by default. <A NAME="lbAF"> </A> <H3>OPTIONS</H3> All of the single-character shell options documented in the description of the <B>set</B> builtin command, including <B>-o</B>, can be used as options when the shell is invoked. In addition, <B>bash</B> interprets the following options when it is invoked: <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-c</B> <DD> If the <B>-c</B> option is present, then commands are read from the first non-option argument <I>command_string</I>. If there are arguments after the <I>command_string</I>, the first argument is assigned to <B>$0</B> and any remaining arguments are assigned to the positional parameters. The assignment to <B>$0</B> sets the name of the shell, which is used in warning and error messages. <DT><B>-i</B> <DD> If the <B>-i</B> option is present, the shell is <I>interactive</I>. <DT><B>-l</B> <DD> Make <B>bash</B> act as if it had been invoked as a login shell (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>INVOCATION</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>-r</B> <DD> If the <B>-r</B> option is present, the shell becomes <I>restricted</I> (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>RESTRICTED SHELL</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>-s</B> <DD> If the <B>-s</B> option is present, or if no arguments remain after option processing, then commands are read from the standard input. This option allows the positional parameters to be set when invoking an interactive shell or when reading input through a pipe. <DT><B>-D</B> <DD> A list of all double-quoted strings preceded by <B>$</B> is printed on the standard output. These are the strings that are subject to language translation when the current locale is not <B>C</B> or <B>POSIX</B>. This implies the <B>-n</B> option; no commands will be executed. <DT><B>[-+]O [</B><I>shopt_option</I>] <DD> <I>shopt_option</I> is one of the shell options accepted by the <B>shopt</B> builtin (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). If <I>shopt_option</I> is present, <B>-O</B> sets the value of that option; <B>+O</B> unsets it. If <I>shopt_option</I> is not supplied, the names and values of the shell options accepted by <B>shopt</B> are printed on the standard output. If the invocation option is <B>+O</B>, the output is displayed in a format that may be reused as input. <DT><B>--</B> <DD> A <B>--</B> signals the end of options and disables further option processing. Any arguments after the <B>--</B> are treated as filenames and arguments. An argument of <B>-</B> is equivalent to <B>--</B>. </DL> <P> <B>Bash</B> also interprets a number of multi-character options. These options must appear on the command line before the single-character options to be recognized. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>--debugger</B> <DD> Arrange for the debugger profile to be executed before the shell starts. Turns on extended debugging mode (see the description of the <B>extdebug</B> option to the <B>shopt</B> builtin below). <DT><B>--dump-po-strings</B> <DD> Equivalent to <B>-D</B>, but the output is in the GNU <I>gettext</I> <B>po</B> (portable object) file format. <DT><B>--dump-strings</B> <DD> Equivalent to <B>-D</B>. <DT><B>--help</B> <DD> Display a usage message on standard output and exit successfully. <DT><B>--init-file</B> <I>file</I><DD> <DT><B>--rcfile</B> <I>file</I><DD> Execute commands from <I>file</I> instead of the standard personal initialization file <A HREF="file:~/.bashrc"><I>~/.bashrc</I></A> if the shell is interactive (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>INVOCATION</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>--login</B> <DD> Equivalent to <B>-l</B>. <DT><B>--noediting</B> <DD> Do not use the GNU <B>readline</B> library to read command lines when the shell is interactive. <DT><B>--noprofile</B> <DD> Do not read either the system-wide startup file <A HREF="file:/etc/profile"><I>/etc/profile</I></A> or any of the personal initialization files <A HREF="file:~/.bash_profile"><I>~/.bash_profile</I></A>, <A HREF="file:~/.bash_login"><I>~/.bash_login</I></A>, or <A HREF="file:~/.profile"><I>~/.profile</I></A>. By default, <B>bash</B> reads these files when it is invoked as a login shell (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>INVOCATION</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>--norc</B> <DD> Do not read and execute the personal initialization file <A HREF="file:~/.bashrc"><I>~/.bashrc</I></A> if the shell is interactive. This option is on by default if the shell is invoked as <B>sh</B>. <DT><B>--posix</B> <DD> Change the behavior of <B>bash</B> where the default operation differs from the POSIX standard to match the standard (<I>posix mode</I>). See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SEE ALSO</B> </FONT> below for a reference to a document that details how posix mode affects bash's behavior. <DT><B>--restricted</B> <DD> The shell becomes restricted (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>RESTRICTED SHELL</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>--verbose</B> <DD> Equivalent to <B>-v</B>. <DT><B>--version</B> <DD> Show version information for this instance of <B>bash</B> on the standard output and exit successfully. </DL> <A NAME="lbAG"> </A> <H3>ARGUMENTS</H3> If arguments remain after option processing, and neither the <B>-c</B> nor the <B>-s</B> option has been supplied, the first argument is assumed to be the name of a file containing shell commands. If <B>bash</B> is invoked in this fashion, <B>$0</B> is set to the name of the file, and the positional parameters are set to the remaining arguments. <B>Bash</B> reads and executes commands from this file, then exits. <B>Bash</B>'s exit status is the exit status of the last command executed in the script. If no commands are executed, the exit status is 0. An attempt is first made to open the file in the current directory, and, if no file is found, then the shell searches the directories in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> for the script. <A NAME="lbAH"> </A> <H3>INVOCATION</H3> A <I>login shell</I> is one whose first character of argument zero is a <B>-</B>, or one started with the <B>--login</B> option. <P> An <I>interactive</I> shell is one started without non-option arguments (unless <B>-s</B> is specified) and without the <B>-c</B> option whose standard input and error are both connected to terminals (as determined by <I>isatty</I>(3)), or one started with the <B>-i</B> option. <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS1</B> </FONT> is set and <B>$-</B> includes <B>i</B> if <B>bash</B> is interactive, allowing a shell script or a startup file to test this state. <P> The following paragraphs describe how <B>bash</B> executes its startup files. If any of the files exist but cannot be read, <B>bash</B> reports an error. Tildes are expanded in filenames as described below under <B>Tilde Expansion</B> in the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EXPANSION</B> </FONT> section. <P> When <B>bash</B> is invoked as an interactive login shell, or as a non-interactive shell with the <B>--login</B> option, it first reads and executes commands from the file <A HREF="file:/etc/profile"><I>/etc/profile</I></A>, if that file exists. After reading that file, it looks for <A HREF="file:~/.bash_profile"><I>~/.bash_profile</I></A>, <A HREF="file:~/.bash_login"><I>~/.bash_login</I></A>, and <A HREF="file:~/.profile"><I>~/.profile</I></A>, in that order, and reads and executes commands from the first one that exists and is readable. The <B>--noprofile</B> option may be used when the shell is started to inhibit this behavior. <P> When an interactive login shell exits, or a non-interactive login shell executes the <B>exit</B> builtin command, <B>bash</B> reads and executes commands from the file <A HREF="file:~/.bash_logout"><I>~/.bash_logout</I></A>, if it exists. <P> When an interactive shell that is not a login shell is started, <B>bash</B> reads and executes commands from <A HREF="file:~/.bashrc"><I>~/.bashrc</I></A>, if that file exists. This may be inhibited by using the <B>--norc</B> option. The <B>--rcfile</B> <I>file</I> option will force <B>bash</B> to read and execute commands from <I>file</I> instead of <A HREF="file:~/.bashrc"><I>~/.bashrc</I></A>. <P> When <B>bash</B> is started non-interactively, to run a shell script, for example, it looks for the variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ENV</B> </FONT> in the environment, expands its value if it appears there, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. <B>Bash</B> behaves as if the following command were executed: <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <TT>if [ -n "$BASH_ENV" ]; then . "$BASH_ENV"; fi</TT> </DL> <P> but the value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> variable is not used to search for the filename. <P> If <B>bash</B> is invoked with the name <B>sh</B>, it tries to mimic the startup behavior of historical versions of <B>sh</B> as closely as possible, while conforming to the POSIX standard as well. When invoked as an interactive login shell, or a non-interactive shell with the <B>--login</B> option, it first attempts to read and execute commands from <A HREF="file:/etc/profile"><I>/etc/profile</I></A> and <A HREF="file:~/.profile"><I>~/.profile</I></A>, in that order. The <B>--noprofile</B> option may be used to inhibit this behavior. When invoked as an interactive shell with the name <B>sh</B>, <B>bash</B> looks for the variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ENV</B>, </FONT> expands its value if it is defined, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. Since a shell invoked as <B>sh</B> does not attempt to read and execute commands from any other startup files, the <B>--rcfile</B> option has no effect. A non-interactive shell invoked with the name <B>sh</B> does not attempt to read any other startup files. When invoked as <B>sh</B>, <B>bash</B> enters <I>posix</I> mode after the startup files are read. <P> When <B>bash</B> is started in <I>posix</I> mode, as with the <B>--posix</B> command line option, it follows the POSIX standard for startup files. In this mode, interactive shells expand the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ENV</B> </FONT> variable and commands are read and executed from the file whose name is the expanded value. No other startup files are read. <P> <B>Bash</B> attempts to determine when it is being run with its standard input connected to a network connection, as when executed by the remote shell daemon, usually <I>rshd</I>, or the secure shell daemon <I>sshd</I>. If <B>bash</B> determines it is being run in this fashion, it reads and executes commands from <A HREF="file:~/.bashrc"><I>~/.bashrc</I></A>, if that file exists and is readable. It will not do this if invoked as <B>sh</B>. The <B>--norc</B> option may be used to inhibit this behavior, and the <B>--rcfile</B> option may be used to force another file to be read, but neither <I>rshd</I> nor <I>sshd</I> generally invoke the shell with those options or allow them to be specified. <P> If the shell is started with the effective user (group) id not equal to the real user (group) id, and the <B>-p</B> option is not supplied, no startup files are read, shell functions are not inherited from the environment, the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELLOPTS</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASHOPTS</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CDPATH</B>, </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> variables, if they appear in the environment, are ignored, and the effective user id is set to the real user id. If the <B>-p</B> option is supplied at invocation, the startup behavior is the same, but the effective user id is not reset. <A NAME="lbAI"> </A> <H3>DEFINITIONS</H3> The following definitions are used throughout the rest of this document. <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>blank</B> <DD> A space or tab. <DT><B>word</B> <DD> A sequence of characters considered as a single unit by the shell. Also known as a <B>token</B>. <DT><B>name</B> <DD> A <I>word</I> consisting only of alphanumeric characters and underscores, and beginning with an alphabetic character or an underscore. Also referred to as an <B>identifier</B>. <DT><B>metacharacter</B> <DD> A character that, when unquoted, separates words. One of the following: <BR> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>| & ; ( ) < > space tab newline</B> </DL> <DT><B>control operator</B> <DD> A <I>token</I> that performs a control function. It is one of the following symbols: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>|| & && ; ;; ;& ;;& ( ) | |& <newline></B> </DL> </DL> <A NAME="lbAJ"> </A> <H3>RESERVED WORDS</H3> <I>Reserved words</I> are words that have a special meaning to the shell. The following words are recognized as reserved when unquoted and either the first word of a command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL GRAMMAR</B> </FONT> below), the third word of a <B>case</B> or <B>select</B> command (only <B>in</B> is valid), or the third word of a <B>for</B> command (only <B>in</B> and <B>do</B> are valid): <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B> </B> ! case coproc do done elif else esac fi for function if in select then until while { } time [[ ]] </DL> <A NAME="lbAK"> </A> <H3>SHELL GRAMMAR</H3> <A NAME="lbAL"> </A> <H4>Simple Commands</H4> A <I>simple command</I> is a sequence of optional variable assignments followed by <B>blank</B>-separated words and redirections, and terminated by a <I>control operator</I>. The first word specifies the command to be executed, and is passed as argument zero. The remaining words are passed as arguments to the invoked command. <P> The return value of a <I>simple command</I> is its exit status, or 128+<I>n</I> if the command is terminated by signal <I>n</I>. <A NAME="lbAM"> </A> <H4>Pipelines</H4> A <I>pipeline</I> is a sequence of one or more commands separated by one of the control operators <B>|</B> or <B>|&</B>. The format for a pipeline is: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [<B>time</B> [<B>-p</B>]] [ ! ] <I>command</I> [ [<B>|</B>|<B>|&</B>] <I>command2</I> ... ] </DL> <P> The standard output of <I>command</I> is connected via a pipe to the standard input of <I>command2</I>. This connection is performed before any redirections specified by the command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>REDIRECTION</B> </FONT> below). If <B>|&</B> is used, <I>command</I>'s standard error, in addition to its standard output, is connected to <I>command2</I>'s standard input through the pipe; it is shorthand for <B>2>&1 |</B>. This implicit redirection of the standard error to the standard output is performed after any redirections specified by the command. <P> The return status of a pipeline is the exit status of the last command, unless the <B>pipefail</B> option is enabled. If <B>pipefail</B> is enabled, the pipeline's return status is the value of the last (rightmost) command to exit with a non-zero status, or zero if all commands exit successfully. If the reserved word <B>!</B> precedes a pipeline, the exit status of that pipeline is the logical negation of the exit status as described above. The shell waits for all commands in the pipeline to terminate before returning a value. <P> If the <B>time</B> reserved word precedes a pipeline, the elapsed as well as user and system time consumed by its execution are reported when the pipeline terminates. The <B>-p</B> option changes the output format to that specified by POSIX. When the shell is in <I>posix mode</I>, it does not recognize <B>time</B> as a reserved word if the next token begins with a `-'. The <FONT SIZE=-1><B>TIMEFORMAT</B> </FONT> variable may be set to a format string that specifies how the timing information should be displayed; see the description of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>TIMEFORMAT</B> </FONT> under <B>Shell Variables</B> below. <P> When the shell is in <I>posix mode</I>, <B>time</B> may be followed by a newline. In this case, the shell displays the total user and system time consumed by the shell and its children. The <FONT SIZE=-1><B>TIMEFORMAT</B> </FONT> variable may be used to specify the format of the time information. <P> Each command in a pipeline is executed as a separate process (i.e., in a subshell). See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMMAND EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT</B></FONT> for a description of a subshell environment. If the <B>lastpipe</B> option is enabled using the <B>shopt</B> builtin (see the description of <B>shopt</B> below), the last element of a pipeline may be run by the shell process. <A NAME="lbAN"> </A> <H4>Lists</H4> A <I>list</I> is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by one of the operators <B>;</B>, <B>&</B>, <B>&&</B>, or <B>||</B>, and optionally terminated by one of <B>;</B>, <B>&</B>, or <B><newline></B>. <P> Of these list operators, <B>&&</B> and <B>||</B> have equal precedence, followed by <B>;</B> and <B>&</B>, which have equal precedence. <P> A sequence of one or more newlines may appear in a <I>list</I> instead of a semicolon to delimit commands. <P> If a command is terminated by the control operator <B>&</B>, the shell executes the command in the <I>background</I> in a subshell. The shell does not wait for the command to finish, and the return status is 0. These are referred to as <I>asynchronous</I> commands. Commands separated by a <B>;</B> are executed sequentially; the shell waits for each command to terminate in turn. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed. <P> AND and OR lists are sequences of one or more pipelines separated by the <B>&&</B> and <B>||</B> control operators, respectively. AND and OR lists are executed with left associativity. An AND list has the form <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <I>command1</I> <B>&&</B> <I>command2</I> </DL> <P> <I>command2</I> is executed if, and only if, <I>command1</I> returns an exit status of zero (success). <P> An OR list has the form <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <I>command1</I> <B>||</B> <I>command2</I> </DL> <P> <I>command2</I> is executed if, and only if, <I>command1</I> returns a non-zero exit status. The return status of AND and OR lists is the exit status of the last command executed in the list. <A NAME="lbAO"> </A> <H4>Compound Commands</H4> A <I>compound command</I> is one of the following. In most cases a <I>list</I> in a command's description may be separated from the rest of the command by one or more newlines, and may be followed by a newline in place of a semicolon. <DL COMPACT> <DT>(<I>list</I>)<DD> <I>list</I> is executed in a subshell environment (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMMAND EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT</B></FONT> below). Variable assignments and builtin commands that affect the shell's environment do not remain in effect after the command completes. The return status is the exit status of <I>list</I>. <DT>{ <I>list</I>; }<DD> <I>list</I> is simply executed in the current shell environment. <I>list</I> must be terminated with a newline or semicolon. This is known as a <I>group command</I>. The return status is the exit status of <I>list</I>. Note that unlike the metacharacters <B>(</B> and <B>)</B>, <B>{</B> and <B>}</B> are <I>reserved words</I> and must occur where a reserved word is permitted to be recognized. Since they do not cause a word break, they must be separated from <I>list</I> by whitespace or another shell metacharacter. <DT>((<I>expression</I>))<DD> The <I>expression</I> is evaluated according to the rules described below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ARITHMETIC EVALUATION</B>. </FONT> If the value of the expression is non-zero, the return status is 0; otherwise the return status is 1. This is exactly equivalent to <B>let "</B><I>expression</I>". <DT><B>[[</B> <I>expression</I> <B>]]</B><DD> Return a status of 0 or 1 depending on the evaluation of the conditional expression <I>expression</I>. Expressions are composed of the primaries described below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS</B>. </FONT> Word splitting and pathname expansion are not performed on the words between the <B>[[</B> and <B>]]</B>; tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, arithmetic expansion, command substitution, process substitution, and quote removal are performed. Conditional operators such as <B>-f</B> must be unquoted to be recognized as primaries. <P> When used with <B>[[</B>, the <B><</B> and <B>></B> operators sort lexicographically using the current locale. <P> When the <B>==</B> and <B>!=</B> operators are used, the string to the right of the operator is considered a pattern and matched according to the rules described below under <B>Pattern Matching</B>, as if the <B>extglob</B> shell option were enabled. The <B>=</B> operator is equivalent to <B>==</B>. If the <B>nocasematch</B> shell option is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. The return value is 0 if the string matches (<B>==</B>) or does not match (<B>!=</B>) the pattern, and 1 otherwise. Any part of the pattern may be quoted to force the quoted portion to be matched as a string. <P> An additional binary operator, <B>=~</B>, is available, with the same precedence as <B>==</B> and <B>!=</B>. When it is used, the string to the right of the operator is considered a POSIX extended regular expression and matched accordingly (using the POSIX <I>regcomp</I> and <I>regexec</I> interfaces usually described in <I>regex</I>(3)). The return value is 0 if the string matches the pattern, and 1 otherwise. If the regular expression is syntactically incorrect, the conditional expression's return value is 2. If the <B>nocasematch</B> shell option is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. Any part of the pattern may be quoted to force the quoted portion to be matched as a string. Bracket expressions in regular expressions must be treated carefully, since normal quoting characters lose their meanings between brackets. If the pattern is stored in a shell variable, quoting the variable expansion forces the entire pattern to be matched as a string. <P> The pattern will match if it matches any part of the string. Anchor the pattern using the <B>^</B> and <B>$</B> regular expression operators to force it to match the entire string. The array variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_REMATCH</B> </FONT> records which parts of the string matched the pattern. The element of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_REMATCH</B> </FONT> with index 0 contains the portion of the string matching the entire regular expression. Substrings matched by parenthesized subexpressions within the regular expression are saved in the remaining <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_REMATCH</B> </FONT> indices. The element of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_REMATCH</B> </FONT> with index <I>n</I> is the portion of the string matching the <I>n</I>th parenthesized subexpression. <P> Expressions may be combined using the following operators, listed in decreasing order of precedence: <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>( </B><I>expression</I> ) <DD> Returns the value of <I>expression</I>. This may be used to override the normal precedence of operators. <DT><B>! </B><I>expression</I> <DD> True if <I>expression</I> is false. <DT><I>expression1</I> <B>&&</B> <I>expression2</I><DD> True if both <I>expression1</I> and <I>expression2</I> are true. <DT><I>expression1</I> <B>||</B> <I>expression2</I><DD> True if either <I>expression1</I> or <I>expression2</I> is true. </DL> <P> The <B>&&</B> and <B>||</B> operators do not evaluate <I>expression2</I> if the value of <I>expression1</I> is sufficient to determine the return value of the entire conditional expression. </DL> <DT><B>for</B> <I>name</I> [ [ <B>in</B> [ <I>word ...</I> ] ] ; ] <B>do</B> <I>list</I> ; <B>done</B><DD> The list of words following <B>in</B> is expanded, generating a list of items. The variable <I>name</I> is set to each element of this list in turn, and <I>list</I> is executed each time. If the <B>in</B> <I>word</I> is omitted, the <B>for</B> command executes <I>list</I> once for each positional parameter that is set (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PARAMETERS</B> </FONT> below). The return status is the exit status of the last command that executes. If the expansion of the items following <B>in</B> results in an empty list, no commands are executed, and the return status is 0. <DT><B>for</B> (( <I>expr1</I> ; <I>expr2</I> ; <I>expr3</I> )) ; <B>do</B> <I>list</I> ; <B>done</B><DD> First, the arithmetic expression <I>expr1</I> is evaluated according to the rules described below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ARITHMETIC EVALUATION</B>. </FONT> The arithmetic expression <I>expr2</I> is then evaluated repeatedly until it evaluates to zero. Each time <I>expr2</I> evaluates to a non-zero value, <I>list</I> is executed and the arithmetic expression <I>expr3</I> is evaluated. If any expression is omitted, it behaves as if it evaluates to 1. The return value is the exit status of the last command in <I>list</I> that is executed, or false if any of the expressions is invalid. <DT><B>select</B> <I>name</I> [ <B>in</B> <I>word</I> ] ; <B>do</B> <I>list</I> ; <B>done</B><DD> The list of words following <B>in</B> is expanded, generating a list of items. The set of expanded words is printed on the standard error, each preceded by a number. If the <B>in</B> <I>word</I> is omitted, the positional parameters are printed (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PARAMETERS</B> </FONT> below). The <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS3</B> </FONT> prompt is then displayed and a line read from the standard input. If the line consists of a number corresponding to one of the displayed words, then the value of <I>name</I> is set to that word. If the line is empty, the words and prompt are displayed again. If EOF is read, the command completes. Any other value read causes <I>name</I> to be set to null. The line read is saved in the variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>REPLY</B>. </FONT> The <I>list</I> is executed after each selection until a <B>break</B> command is executed. The exit status of <B>select</B> is the exit status of the last command executed in <I>list</I>, or zero if no commands were executed. <DT><B>case</B> <I>word</I> <B>in</B> [ [(] <I>pattern</I> [ <B>|</B> <I>pattern</I> ] <DD> A <B>case</B> command first expands <I>word</I>, and tries to match it against each <I>pattern</I> in turn, using the matching rules described under <B>Pattern Matching</B> below. The <I>word</I> is expanded using tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, arithmetic expansion, command substitution, process substitution and quote removal. Each <I>pattern</I> examined is expanded using tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, arithmetic expansion, command substitution, and process substitution. If the <B>nocasematch</B> shell option is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. When a match is found, the corresponding <I>list</I> is executed. If the <B>;;</B> operator is used, no subsequent matches are attempted after the first pattern match. Using <B>;&</B> in place of <B>;;</B> causes execution to continue with the <I>list</I> associated with the next set of patterns. Using <B>;;&</B> in place of <B>;;</B> causes the shell to test the next pattern list in the statement, if any, and execute any associated <I>list</I> on a successful match, continuing the case statement execution as if the pattern list had not matched. The exit status is zero if no pattern matches. Otherwise, it is the exit status of the last command executed in <I>list</I>. <DT><B>if</B> <I>list</I>; <B>then</B> <I>list</I>; [ <B>elif</B> <I>list</I>; <B>then</B> <I>list</I>; ] ... [ <B>else</B> <I>list</I>; ] <B>fi</B><DD> The <B>if</B> <I>list</I> is executed. If its exit status is zero, the <B>then</B> <I>list</I> is executed. Otherwise, each <B>elif</B> <I>list</I> is executed in turn, and if its exit status is zero, the corresponding <B>then</B> <I>list</I> is executed and the command completes. Otherwise, the <B>else</B> <I>list</I> is executed, if present. The exit status is the exit status of the last command executed, or zero if no condition tested true. <DT><B>while</B> <I>list-1</I>; <B>do</B> <I>list-2</I>; <B>done</B><DD> <DT><B>until</B> <I>list-1</I>; <B>do</B> <I>list-2</I>; <B>done</B><DD> The <B>while</B> command continuously executes the list <I>list-2</I> as long as the last command in the list <I>list-1</I> returns an exit status of zero. The <B>until</B> command is identical to the <B>while</B> command, except that the test is negated: <I>list-2</I> is executed as long as the last command in <I>list-1</I> returns a non-zero exit status. The exit status of the <B>while</B> and <B>until</B> commands is the exit status of the last command executed in <I>list-2</I>, or zero if none was executed. </DL> <A NAME="lbAP"> </A> <H4>Coprocesses</H4> A <I>coprocess</I> is a shell command preceded by the <B>coproc</B> reserved word. A coprocess is executed asynchronously in a subshell, as if the command had been terminated with the <B>&</B> control operator, with a two-way pipe established between the executing shell and the coprocess. <P> The format for a coprocess is: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>coproc</B> [<I>NAME</I>] <I>command</I> [<I>redirections</I>] </DL> <P> This creates a coprocess named <I>NAME</I>. If <I>NAME</I> is not supplied, the default name is <B>COPROC</B>. <I>NAME</I> must not be supplied if <I>command</I> is a <I>simple command</I> (see above); otherwise, it is interpreted as the first word of the simple command. When the coprocess is executed, the shell creates an array variable (see <B>Arrays</B> below) named <I>NAME</I> in the context of the executing shell. The standard output of <I>command</I> is connected via a pipe to a file descriptor in the executing shell, and that file descriptor is assigned to <I>NAME</I>[0]. The standard input of <I>command</I> is connected via a pipe to a file descriptor in the executing shell, and that file descriptor is assigned to <I>NAME</I>[1]. This pipe is established before any redirections specified by the command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>REDIRECTION</B> </FONT> below). The file descriptors can be utilized as arguments to shell commands and redirections using standard word expansions. Other than those created to execute command and process substitutions, the file descriptors are not available in subshells. The process ID of the shell spawned to execute the coprocess is available as the value of the variable <I>NAME</I>_PID. The <B>wait</B> builtin command may be used to wait for the coprocess to terminate. <P> Since the coprocess is created as an asynchronous command, the <B>coproc</B> command always returns success. The return status of a coprocess is the exit status of <I>command</I>. <A NAME="lbAQ"> </A> <H4>Shell Function Definitions</H4> A shell function is an object that is called like a simple command and executes a compound command with a new set of positional parameters. Shell functions are declared as follows: <DL COMPACT> <DT><I>fname</I> () <I>compound-command</I> [<I>redirection</I>]<DD> <DT><B>function</B> <I>fname</I> [()] <I>compound-command</I> [<I>redirection</I>]<DD> This defines a function named <I>fname</I>. The reserved word <B>function</B> is optional. If the <B>function</B> reserved word is supplied, the parentheses are optional. The <I>body</I> of the function is the compound command <I>compound-command</I> (see <B>Compound Commands</B> above). That command is usually a <I>list</I> of commands between { and }, but may be any command listed under <B>Compound Commands</B> above, with one exception: If the <B>function</B> reserved word is used, but the parentheses are not supplied, the braces are required. <I>compound-command</I> is executed whenever <I>fname</I> is specified as the name of a simple command. When in <I>posix mode</I>, <I>fname</I> must be a valid shell <I>name</I> and may not be the name of one of the POSIX <I>special builtins</I>. In default mode, a function name can be any unquoted shell word that does not contain <B>$</B>. Any redirections (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>REDIRECTION</B> </FONT> below) specified when a function is defined are performed when the function is executed. The exit status of a function definition is zero unless a syntax error occurs or a readonly function with the same name already exists. When executed, the exit status of a function is the exit status of the last command executed in the body. (See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCTIONS</B> </FONT> below.) </DL> <A NAME="lbAR"> </A> <H3>COMMENTS</H3> In a non-interactive shell, or an interactive shell in which the <B>interactive_comments</B> option to the <B>shopt</B> builtin is enabled (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below), a word beginning with <B>#</B> causes that word and all remaining characters on that line to be ignored. An interactive shell without the <B>interactive_comments</B> option enabled does not allow comments. The <B>interactive_comments</B> option is on by default in interactive shells. <A NAME="lbAS"> </A> <H3>QUOTING</H3> <I>Quoting</I> is used to remove the special meaning of certain characters or words to the shell. Quoting can be used to disable special treatment for special characters, to prevent reserved words from being recognized as such, and to prevent parameter expansion. <P> Each of the <I>metacharacters</I> listed above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>DEFINITIONS</B> </FONT> has special meaning to the shell and must be quoted if it is to represent itself. <P> When the command history expansion facilities are being used (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY EXPANSION</B> </FONT> below), the <I>history expansion</I> character, usually <B>!</B>, must be quoted to prevent history expansion. <P> There are three quoting mechanisms: the <I>escape character</I>, single quotes, and double quotes. <P> A non-quoted backslash (<B>\</B>) is the <I>escape character</I>. It preserves the literal value of the next character that follows, with the exception of <newline>. If a <B>\</B><newline> pair appears, and the backslash is not itself quoted, the <B>\</B><newline> is treated as a line continuation (that is, it is removed from the input stream and effectively ignored). <P> Enclosing characters in single quotes preserves the literal value of each character within the quotes. A single quote may not occur between single quotes, even when preceded by a backslash. <P> Enclosing characters in double quotes preserves the literal value of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of <B>$</B>, <B>`</B>, <B>\</B>, and, when history expansion is enabled, <B>!</B>. When the shell is in <I>posix mode</I>, the <B>!</B> has no special meaning within double quotes, even when history expansion is enabled. The characters <B>$</B> and <B>`</B> retain their special meaning within double quotes. The backslash retains its special meaning only when followed by one of the following characters: <B>$</B>, <B>`</B>, <B>"</B>, <B>\</B>, or <B><newline></B>. A double quote may be quoted within double quotes by preceding it with a backslash. If enabled, history expansion will be performed unless an <B>!</B> appearing in double quotes is escaped using a backslash. The backslash preceding the <B>!</B> is not removed. <P> The special parameters <B>*</B> and <B>@</B> have special meaning when in double quotes (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PARAMETERS</B> </FONT> below). <P> Words of the form <B>$</B>aq<I>string</I>aq are treated specially. The word expands to <I>string</I>, with backslash-escaped characters replaced as specified by the ANSI C standard. Backslash escape sequences, if present, are decoded as follows: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>\a</B> <DD> alert (bell) <DT><B>\b</B> <DD> backspace <DT><B>\e</B> <DD> <DT><B>\E</B> <DD> an escape character <DT><B>\f</B> <DD> form feed <DT><B>\n</B> <DD> new line <DT><B>\r</B> <DD> carriage return <DT><B>\t</B> <DD> horizontal tab <DT><B>\v</B> <DD> vertical tab <DT><B>\\</B> <DD> backslash <DT><B>\aq</B> <DD> single quote <DT><B>\dq</B> <DD> double quote <DT><B>\?</B> <DD> question mark <DT><B>\</B><I>nnn</I> <DD> the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value <I>nnn</I> (one to three octal digits) <DT><B>\x</B><I>HH</I> <DD> the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value <I>HH</I> (one or two hex digits) <DT><B>\u</B><I>HHHH</I> <DD> the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value <I>HHHH</I> (one to four hex digits) <DT><B>\U</B><I>HHHHHHHH</I> <DD> the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value <I>HHHHHHHH</I> (one to eight hex digits) <DT><B>\c</B><I>x</I> <DD> a control-<I>x</I> character </DL></DL> <P> The expanded result is single-quoted, as if the dollar sign had not been present. <P> A double-quoted string preceded by a dollar sign (<B>$</B>dq<I>string</I>dq) will cause the string to be translated according to the current locale. The <I>gettext</I> infrastructure performs the message catalog lookup and translation, using the <B>LC_MESSAGES</B> and <B>TEXTDOMAIN</B> shell variables. If the current locale is <B>C</B> or <B>POSIX</B>, or if there are no translations available, the dollar sign is ignored. If the string is translated and replaced, the replacement is double-quoted. <A NAME="lbAT"> </A> <H3>PARAMETERS</H3> A <I>parameter</I> is an entity that stores values. It can be a <I>name</I>, a number, or one of the special characters listed below under <B>Special Parameters</B>. A <I>variable</I> is a parameter denoted by a <I>name</I>. A variable has a <I>value</I> and zero or more <I>attributes</I>. Attributes are assigned using the <B>declare</B> builtin command (see <B>declare</B> below in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B>). </FONT> <P> A parameter is set if it has been assigned a value. The null string is a valid value. Once a variable is set, it may be unset only by using the <B>unset</B> builtin command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <P> A <I>variable</I> may be assigned to by a statement of the form <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <I>name</I>=[<I>value</I>] </DL> <P> If <I>value</I> is not given, the variable is assigned the null string. All <I>values</I> undergo tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EXPANSION</B> </FONT> below). If the variable has its <B>integer</B> attribute set, then <I>value</I> is evaluated as an arithmetic expression even if the $((...)) expansion is not used (see <B>Arithmetic Expansion</B> below). Word splitting is not performed, with the exception of <B>"$@"</B> as explained below under <B>Special Parameters</B>. Pathname expansion is not performed. Assignment statements may also appear as arguments to the <B>alias</B>, <B>declare</B>, <B>typeset</B>, <B>export</B>, <B>readonly</B>, and <B>local</B> builtin commands (<I>declaration</I> commands). When in <I>posix mode</I>, these builtins may appear in a command after one or more instances of the <B>command</B> builtin and retain these assignment statement properties. <P> In the context where an assignment statement is assigning a value to a shell variable or array index, the += operator can be used to append to or add to the variable's previous value. This includes arguments to builtin commands such as <B>declare</B> that accept assignment statements (<I>declaration</I> commands). When += is applied to a variable for which the <I>integer</I> attribute has been set, <I>value</I> is evaluated as an arithmetic expression and added to the variable's current value, which is also evaluated. When += is applied to an array variable using compound assignment (see <B>Arrays</B> below), the variable's value is not unset (as it is when using =), and new values are appended to the array beginning at one greater than the array's maximum index (for indexed arrays) or added as additional key-value pairs in an associative array. When applied to a string-valued variable, <I>value</I> is expanded and appended to the variable's value. <P> A variable can be assigned the <I>nameref</I> attribute using the <B>-n</B> option to the <B>declare</B> or <B>local</B> builtin commands (see the descriptions of <B>declare</B> and <B>local</B> below) to create a <I>nameref</I>, or a reference to another variable. This allows variables to be manipulated indirectly. Whenever the nameref variable is referenced, assigned to, unset, or has its attributes modified (other than using or changing the <I>nameref</I> attribute itself), the operation is actually performed on the variable specified by the nameref variable's value. A nameref is commonly used within shell functions to refer to a variable whose name is passed as an argument to the function. For instance, if a variable name is passed to a shell function as its first argument, running <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <TT>declare -n ref=$1</TT> </DL> <P> inside the function creates a nameref variable <B>ref</B> whose value is the variable name passed as the first argument. References and assignments to <B>ref</B>, and changes to its attributes, are treated as references, assignments, and attribute modifications to the variable whose name was passed as <B>$1</B>. If the control variable in a <B>for</B> loop has the nameref attribute, the list of words can be a list of shell variables, and a name reference will be established for each word in the list, in turn, when the loop is executed. Array variables cannot be given the <B>nameref</B> attribute. However, nameref variables can reference array variables and subscripted array variables. Namerefs can be unset using the <B>-n</B> option to the <B>unset</B> builtin. Otherwise, if <B>unset</B> is executed with the name of a nameref variable as an argument, the variable referenced by the nameref variable will be unset. <A NAME="lbAU"> </A> <H4>Positional Parameters</H4> A <I>positional parameter</I> is a parameter denoted by one or more digits, other than the single digit 0. Positional parameters are assigned from the shell's arguments when it is invoked, and may be reassigned using the <B>set</B> builtin command. Positional parameters may not be assigned to with assignment statements. The positional parameters are temporarily replaced when a shell function is executed (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCTIONS</B> </FONT> below). <P> When a positional parameter consisting of more than a single digit is expanded, it must be enclosed in braces (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EXPANSION</B> </FONT> below). <A NAME="lbAV"> </A> <H4>Special Parameters</H4> The shell treats several parameters specially. These parameters may only be referenced; assignment to them is not allowed. <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>*</B> <DD> Expands to the positional parameters, starting from one. When the expansion is not within double quotes, each positional parameter expands to a separate word. In contexts where it is performed, those words are subject to further word splitting and pathname expansion. When the expansion occurs within double quotes, it expands to a single word with the value of each parameter separated by the first character of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> special variable. That is, "<B>$*</B>" is equivalent to "<B>$1</B><I>c</I><B>$2</B><I>c</I><B>...</B>", where <I>c</I> is the first character of the value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> variable. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> is unset, the parameters are separated by spaces. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> is null, the parameters are joined without intervening separators. <DT><B>@</B> <DD> Expands to the positional parameters, starting from one. In contexts where word splitting is performed, this expands each positional parameter to a separate word; if not within double quotes, these words are subject to word splitting. In contexts where word splitting is not performed, this expands to a single word with each positional parameter separated by a space. When the expansion occurs within double quotes, each parameter expands to a separate word. That is, "<B>$@</B>" is equivalent to "<B>$1</B>" "<B>$2</B>" ... If the double-quoted expansion occurs within a word, the expansion of the first parameter is joined with the beginning part of the original word, and the expansion of the last parameter is joined with the last part of the original word. When there are no positional parameters, "<B>$@</B>" and <B>$@</B> expand to nothing (i.e., they are removed). <DT><B>#</B> <DD> Expands to the number of positional parameters in decimal. <DT><B>?</B> <DD> Expands to the exit status of the most recently executed foreground pipeline. <DT><B>-</B> <DD> Expands to the current option flags as specified upon invocation, by the <B>set</B> builtin command, or those set by the shell itself (such as the <B>-i</B> option). <DT><B>$</B> <DD> Expands to the process ID of the shell. In a () subshell, it expands to the process ID of the current shell, not the subshell. <DT><B>!</B> <DD> Expands to the process ID of the job most recently placed into the background, whether executed as an asynchronous command or using the <B>bg</B> builtin (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>JOB CONTROL</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>0</B> <DD> Expands to the name of the shell or shell script. This is set at shell initialization. If <B>bash</B> is invoked with a file of commands, <B>$0</B> is set to the name of that file. If <B>bash</B> is started with the <B>-c</B> option, then <B>$0</B> is set to the first argument after the string to be executed, if one is present. Otherwise, it is set to the filename used to invoke <B>bash</B>, as given by argument zero. </DL> <A NAME="lbAW"> </A> <H4>Shell Variables</H4> The following variables are set by the shell: <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>_</B> <DD> At shell startup, set to the pathname used to invoke the shell or shell script being executed as passed in the environment or argument list. Subsequently, expands to the last argument to the previous simple command executed in the foreground, after expansion. Also set to the full pathname used to invoke each command executed and placed in the environment exported to that command. When checking mail, this parameter holds the name of the mail file currently being checked. <DT><B>BASH</B> <DD> Expands to the full filename used to invoke this instance of <B>bash</B>. <DT><B>BASHOPTS</B> <DD> A colon-separated list of enabled shell options. Each word in the list is a valid argument for the <B>-s</B> option to the <B>shopt</B> builtin command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). The options appearing in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASHOPTS</B> </FONT> are those reported as <I>on</I> by <B>shopt</B>. If this variable is in the environment when <B>bash</B> starts up, each shell option in the list will be enabled before reading any startup files. This variable is read-only. <DT><B>BASHPID</B> <DD> Expands to the process ID of the current <B>bash</B> process. This differs from <B>$$</B> under certain circumstances, such as subshells that do not require <B>bash</B> to be re-initialized. Assignments to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASHPID</B> </FONT> have no effect. If <B>BASHPID</B> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>BASH_ALIASES</B> <DD> An associative array variable whose members correspond to the internal list of aliases as maintained by the <B>alias</B> builtin. Elements added to this array appear in the alias list; however, unsetting array elements currently does not cause aliases to be removed from the alias list. If <B>BASH_ALIASES</B> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>BASH_ARGC</B> <DD> An array variable whose values are the number of parameters in each frame of the current <B>bash</B> execution call stack. The number of parameters to the current subroutine (shell function or script executed with <B>.</B> or <B>source</B>) is at the top of the stack. When a subroutine is executed, the number of parameters passed is pushed onto <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ARGC</B>. </FONT> The shell sets <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ARGC</B> </FONT> only when in extended debugging mode (see the description of the <B>extdebug</B> option to the <B>shopt</B> builtin below). Setting <B>extdebug</B> after the shell has started to execute a script, or referencing this variable when <B>extdebug</B> is not set, may result in inconsistent values. <DT><B>BASH_ARGV</B> <DD> An array variable containing all of the parameters in the current <B>bash</B> execution call stack. The final parameter of the last subroutine call is at the top of the stack; the first parameter of the initial call is at the bottom. When a subroutine is executed, the parameters supplied are pushed onto <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ARGV</B>. </FONT> The shell sets <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ARGV</B> </FONT> only when in extended debugging mode (see the description of the <B>extdebug</B> option to the <B>shopt</B> builtin below). Setting <B>extdebug</B> after the shell has started to execute a script, or referencing this variable when <B>extdebug</B> is not set, may result in inconsistent values. <DT><B>BASH_ARGV0</B> <DD> When referenced, this variable expands to the name of the shell or shell script (identical to <B>$0</B>; see the description of special parameter 0 above). Assignment to <B>BASH_ARGV0</B> causes the value assigned to also be assigned to <B>$0</B>. If <B>BASH_ARGV0</B> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>BASH_CMDS</B> <DD> An associative array variable whose members correspond to the internal hash table of commands as maintained by the <B>hash</B> builtin. Elements added to this array appear in the hash table; however, unsetting array elements currently does not cause command names to be removed from the hash table. If <B>BASH_CMDS</B> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>BASH_COMMAND</B> <DD> The command currently being executed or about to be executed, unless the shell is executing a command as the result of a trap, in which case it is the command executing at the time of the trap. If <B>BASH_COMMAND</B> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>BASH_EXECUTION_STRING</B> <DD> The command argument to the <B>-c</B> invocation option. <DT><B>BASH_LINENO</B> <DD> An array variable whose members are the line numbers in source files where each corresponding member of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCNAME</B> </FONT> was invoked. <B>${BASH_LINENO[</B><I>$i</I><B>]}</B> is the line number in the source file (<B>${BASH_SOURCE[</B><I>$i+1</I><B>]}</B>) where <B>${FUNCNAME[</B><I>$i</I><B>]}</B> was called (or <B>${BASH_LINENO[</B><I>$i-1</I><B>]}</B> if referenced within another shell function). Use <FONT SIZE=-1><B>LINENO</B> </FONT> to obtain the current line number. <DT><B>BASH_LOADABLES_PATH</B> <DD> A colon-separated list of directories in which the shell looks for dynamically loadable builtins specified by the <B>enable</B> command. <DT><B>BASH_REMATCH</B> <DD> An array variable whose members are assigned by the <B>=~</B> binary operator to the <B>[[</B> conditional command. The element with index 0 is the portion of the string matching the entire regular expression. The element with index <I>n</I> is the portion of the string matching the <I>n</I>th parenthesized subexpression. <DT><B>BASH_SOURCE</B> <DD> An array variable whose members are the source filenames where the corresponding shell function names in the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCNAME</B> </FONT> array variable are defined. The shell function <B>${FUNCNAME[</B><I>$i</I><B>]}</B> is defined in the file <B>${BASH_SOURCE[</B><I>$i</I><B>]}</B> and called from <B>${BASH_SOURCE[</B><I>$i+1</I><B>]}</B>. <DT><B>BASH_SUBSHELL</B> <DD> Incremented by one within each subshell or subshell environment when the shell begins executing in that environment. The initial value is 0. If <B>BASH_SUBSHELL</B> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>BASH_VERSINFO</B> <DD> A readonly array variable whose members hold version information for this instance of <B>bash</B>. The values assigned to the array members are as follows: <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>BASH_VERSINFO[</B>0] <DD> The major version number (the <I>release</I>). <DT><B>BASH_VERSINFO[</B>1] <DD> The minor version number (the <I>version</I>). <DT><B>BASH_VERSINFO[</B>2] <DD> The patch level. <DT><B>BASH_VERSINFO[</B>3] <DD> The build version. <DT><B>BASH_VERSINFO[</B>4] <DD> The release status (e.g., <I>beta1</I>). <DT><B>BASH_VERSINFO[</B>5] <DD> The value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>MACHTYPE</B>. </FONT> </DL></DL> <DT><B>BASH_VERSION</B> <DD> Expands to a string describing the version of this instance of <B>bash</B>. <DT><B>COMP_CWORD</B> <DD> An index into <B>${COMP_WORDS}</B> of the word containing the current cursor position. This variable is available only in shell functions invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <B>Programmable Completion</B> below). <DT><B>COMP_KEY</B> <DD> The key (or final key of a key sequence) used to invoke the current completion function. <DT><B>COMP_LINE</B> <DD> The current command line. This variable is available only in shell functions and external commands invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <B>Programmable Completion</B> below). <DT><B>COMP_POINT</B> <DD> The index of the current cursor position relative to the beginning of the current command. If the current cursor position is at the end of the current command, the value of this variable is equal to <B>${#COMP_LINE}</B>. This variable is available only in shell functions and external commands invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <B>Programmable Completion</B> below). <DT><B>COMP_TYPE</B> <DD> Set to an integer value corresponding to the type of completion attempted that caused a completion function to be called: <I>TAB</I>, for normal completion, <I>?</I>, for listing completions after successive tabs, <I>!</I>, for listing alternatives on partial word completion, <I>@</I>, to list completions if the word is not unmodified, or <I>%</I>, for menu completion. This variable is available only in shell functions and external commands invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <B>Programmable Completion</B> below). <DT><B>COMP_WORDBREAKS</B> <DD> The set of characters that the <B>readline</B> library treats as word separators when performing word completion. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMP_WORDBREAKS</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>COMP_WORDS</B> <DD> An array variable (see <B>Arrays</B> below) consisting of the individual words in the current command line. The line is split into words as <B>readline</B> would split it, using <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMP_WORDBREAKS</B> </FONT> as described above. This variable is available only in shell functions invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <B>Programmable Completion</B> below). <DT><B>COPROC</B> <DD> An array variable (see <B>Arrays</B> below) created to hold the file descriptors for output from and input to an unnamed coprocess (see <B>Coprocesses</B> above). <DT><B>DIRSTACK</B> <DD> An array variable (see <B>Arrays</B> below) containing the current contents of the directory stack. Directories appear in the stack in the order they are displayed by the <B>dirs</B> builtin. Assigning to members of this array variable may be used to modify directories already in the stack, but the <B>pushd</B> and <B>popd</B> builtins must be used to add and remove directories. Assignment to this variable will not change the current directory. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>DIRSTACK</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>EPOCHREALTIME</B> <DD> Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to the number of seconds since the Unix Epoch (see <I>time</I>(3)) as a floating point value with micro-second granularity. Assignments to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EPOCHREALTIME</B> </FONT> are ignored. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EPOCHREALTIME</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>EPOCHSECONDS</B> <DD> Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to the number of seconds since the Unix Epoch (see <I>time</I>(3)). Assignments to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EPOCHSECONDS</B> </FONT> are ignored. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EPOCHSECONDS</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>EUID</B> <DD> Expands to the effective user ID of the current user, initialized at shell startup. This variable is readonly. <DT><B>FUNCNAME</B> <DD> An array variable containing the names of all shell functions currently in the execution call stack. The element with index 0 is the name of any currently-executing shell function. The bottom-most element (the one with the highest index) is <TT>"main"</TT>. This variable exists only when a shell function is executing. Assignments to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCNAME</B> </FONT> have no effect. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCNAME</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <P> This variable can be used with <B>BASH_LINENO</B> and <B>BASH_SOURCE</B>. Each element of <B>FUNCNAME</B> has corresponding elements in <B>BASH_LINENO</B> and <B>BASH_SOURCE</B> to describe the call stack. For instance, <B>${FUNCNAME[</B><I>$i</I><B>]}</B> was called from the file <B>${BASH_SOURCE[</B><I>$i+1</I><B>]}</B> at line number <B>${BASH_LINENO[</B><I>$i</I><B>]}</B>. The <B>caller</B> builtin displays the current call stack using this information. <DT><B>GROUPS</B> <DD> An array variable containing the list of groups of which the current user is a member. Assignments to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GROUPS</B> </FONT> have no effect. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GROUPS</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>HISTCMD</B> <DD> The history number, or index in the history list, of the current command. Assignments to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTCMD</B> </FONT> are ignored. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTCMD</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>HOSTNAME</B> <DD> Automatically set to the name of the current host. <DT><B>HOSTTYPE</B> <DD> Automatically set to a string that uniquely describes the type of machine on which <B>bash</B> is executing. The default is system-dependent. <DT><B>LINENO</B> <DD> Each time this parameter is referenced, the shell substitutes a decimal number representing the current sequential line number (starting with 1) within a script or function. When not in a script or function, the value substituted is not guaranteed to be meaningful. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>LINENO</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>MACHTYPE</B> <DD> Automatically set to a string that fully describes the system type on which <B>bash</B> is executing, in the standard GNU <I>cpu-company-system</I> format. The default is system-dependent. <DT><B>MAPFILE</B> <DD> An array variable (see <B>Arrays</B> below) created to hold the text read by the <B>mapfile</B> builtin when no variable name is supplied. <DT><B>OLDPWD</B> <DD> The previous working directory as set by the <B>cd</B> command. <DT><B>OPTARG</B> <DD> The value of the last option argument processed by the <B>getopts</B> builtin command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>OPTIND</B> <DD> The index of the next argument to be processed by the <B>getopts</B> builtin command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>OSTYPE</B> <DD> Automatically set to a string that describes the operating system on which <B>bash</B> is executing. The default is system-dependent. <DT><B>PIPESTATUS</B> <DD> An array variable (see <B>Arrays</B> below) containing a list of exit status values from the processes in the most-recently-executed foreground pipeline (which may contain only a single command). <DT><B>PPID</B> <DD> The process ID of the shell's parent. This variable is readonly. <DT><B>PWD</B> <DD> The current working directory as set by the <B>cd</B> command. <DT><B>RANDOM</B> <DD> Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to a random integer between 0 and 32767. Assigning a value to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>RANDOM</B> </FONT> initializes (seeds) the sequence of random numbers. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>RANDOM</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>READLINE_LINE</B> <DD> The contents of the <B>readline</B> line buffer, for use with <TT>bind -x</TT> (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>READLINE_MARK</B> <DD> The position of the mark (saved insertion point) in the <B>readline</B> line buffer, for use with <TT>bind -x</TT> (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). The characters between the insertion point and the mark are often called the <I>region</I>. <DT><B>READLINE_POINT</B> <DD> The position of the insertion point in the <B>readline</B> line buffer, for use with <TT>bind -x</TT> (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>REPLY</B> <DD> Set to the line of input read by the <B>read</B> builtin command when no arguments are supplied. <DT><B>SECONDS</B> <DD> Each time this parameter is referenced, the number of seconds since shell invocation is returned. If a value is assigned to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SECONDS</B>, </FONT> the value returned upon subsequent references is the number of seconds since the assignment plus the value assigned. The number of seconds at shell invocation and the current time is always determined by querying the system clock. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SECONDS</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>SHELLOPTS</B> <DD> A colon-separated list of enabled shell options. Each word in the list is a valid argument for the <B>-o</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). The options appearing in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELLOPTS</B> </FONT> are those reported as <I>on</I> by <B>set -o</B>. If this variable is in the environment when <B>bash</B> starts up, each shell option in the list will be enabled before reading any startup files. This variable is read-only. <DT><B>SHLVL</B> <DD> Incremented by one each time an instance of <B>bash</B> is started. <DT><B>SRANDOM</B> <DD> This variable expands to a 32-bit pseudo-random number each time it is referenced. The random number generator is not linear on systems that support <TT>/dev/urandom</TT> or <I>arc4random</I>, so each returned number has no relationship to the numbers preceding it. The random number generator cannot be seeded, so assignments to this variable have no effect. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SRANDOM</B> </FONT> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. <DT><B>UID</B> <DD> Expands to the user ID of the current user, initialized at shell startup. This variable is readonly. </DL> <P> The following variables are used by the shell. In some cases, <B>bash</B> assigns a default value to a variable; these cases are noted below. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>BASH_COMPAT</B> <DD> The value is used to set the shell's compatibility level. See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL COMPATIBILITY MODE</B> </FONT> below for a description of the various compatibility levels and their effects. The value may be a decimal number (e.g., 4.2) or an integer (e.g., 42) corresponding to the desired compatibility level. If <B>BASH_COMPAT</B> is unset or set to the empty string, the compatibility level is set to the default for the current version. If <B>BASH_COMPAT</B> is set to a value that is not one of the valid compatibility levels, the shell prints an error message and sets the compatibility level to the default for the current version. The valid values correspond to the compatibility levels described below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BSHELL</B>COMPATIBILITY<B>MODE</B>. </FONT> For example, 4.2 and 42 are valid values that correspond to the <B>compat42</B> <B>shopt</B> option and set the compatibility level to 42. The current version is also a valid value. <DT><B>BASH_ENV</B> <DD> If this parameter is set when <B>bash</B> is executing a shell script, its value is interpreted as a filename containing commands to initialize the shell, as in <A HREF="file:~/.bashrc"><I>~/.bashrc</I></A>. The value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ENV</B> </FONT> is subjected to parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion before being interpreted as a filename. <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> is not used to search for the resultant filename. <DT><B>BASH_XTRACEFD</B> <DD> If set to an integer corresponding to a valid file descriptor, <B>bash</B> will write the trace output generated when <TT>set -x</TT> is enabled to that file descriptor. The file descriptor is closed when <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_XTRACEFD</B> </FONT> is unset or assigned a new value. Unsetting <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_XTRACEFD</B> </FONT> or assigning it the empty string causes the trace output to be sent to the standard error. Note that setting <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_XTRACEFD</B> </FONT> to 2 (the standard error file descriptor) and then unsetting it will result in the standard error being closed. <DT><B>CDPATH</B> <DD> The search path for the <B>cd</B> command. This is a colon-separated list of directories in which the shell looks for destination directories specified by the <B>cd</B> command. A sample value is <TT>".:~:/usr"</TT>. <DT><B>CHILD_MAX</B> <DD> Set the number of exited child status values for the shell to remember. Bash will not allow this value to be decreased below a POSIX-mandated minimum, and there is a maximum value (currently 8192) that this may not exceed. The minimum value is system-dependent. <DT><B>COLUMNS</B> <DD> Used by the <B>select</B> compound command to determine the terminal width when printing selection lists. Automatically set if the <B>checkwinsize</B> option is enabled or in an interactive shell upon receipt of a <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGWINCH</B>. </FONT> <DT><B>COMPREPLY</B> <DD> An array variable from which <B>bash</B> reads the possible completions generated by a shell function invoked by the programmable completion facility (see <B>Programmable Completion</B> below). Each array element contains one possible completion. <DT><B>EMACS</B> <DD> If <B>bash</B> finds this variable in the environment when the shell starts with value <TT>t</TT>, it assumes that the shell is running in an Emacs shell buffer and disables line editing. <DT><B>ENV</B> <DD> Expanded and executed similarly to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ENV</B> </FONT> (see <B>INVOCATION</B> above) when an interactive shell is invoked in <I>posix mode</I>. <DT><B>EXECIGNORE</B> <DD> A colon-separated list of shell patterns (see <B>Pattern Matching</B>) defining the list of filenames to be ignored by command search using <B>PATH</B>. Files whose full pathnames match one of these patterns are not considered executable files for the purposes of completion and command execution via <B>PATH</B> lookup. This does not affect the behavior of the <B>[</B>, <B>test</B>, and <B>[[</B> commands. Full pathnames in the command hash table are not subject to <B>EXECIGNORE</B>. Use this variable to ignore shared library files that have the executable bit set, but are not executable files. The pattern matching honors the setting of the <B>extglob</B> shell option. <DT><B>FCEDIT</B> <DD> The default editor for the <B>fc</B> builtin command. <DT><B>FIGNORE</B> <DD> A colon-separated list of suffixes to ignore when performing filename completion (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE</B> </FONT> below). A filename whose suffix matches one of the entries in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FIGNORE</B> </FONT> is excluded from the list of matched filenames. A sample value is <TT>".o:~"</TT>. <DT><B>FUNCNEST</B> <DD> If set to a numeric value greater than 0, defines a maximum function nesting level. Function invocations that exceed this nesting level will cause the current command to abort. <DT><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> <DD> A colon-separated list of patterns defining the set of file names to be ignored by pathname expansion. If a file name matched by a pathname expansion pattern also matches one of the patterns in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B>, </FONT> it is removed from the list of matches. <DT><B>HISTCONTROL</B> <DD> A colon-separated list of values controlling how commands are saved on the history list. If the list of values includes <I>ignorespace</I>, lines which begin with a <B>space</B> character are not saved in the history list. A value of <I>ignoredups</I> causes lines matching the previous history entry to not be saved. A value of <I>ignoreboth</I> is shorthand for <I>ignorespace</I> and <I>ignoredups</I>. A value of <I>erasedups</I> causes all previous lines matching the current line to be removed from the history list before that line is saved. Any value not in the above list is ignored. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTCONTROL</B> </FONT> is unset, or does not include a valid value, all lines read by the shell parser are saved on the history list, subject to the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTIGNORE</B>. </FONT> The second and subsequent lines of a multi-line compound command are not tested, and are added to the history regardless of the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTCONTROL</B>. </FONT> <DT><B>HISTFILE</B> <DD> The name of the file in which command history is saved (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY</B> </FONT> below). The default value is <A HREF="file:~/.bash_history"><I>~/.bash_history</I></A>. If unset, the command history is not saved when a shell exits. <DT><B>HISTFILESIZE</B> <DD> The maximum number of lines contained in the history file. When this variable is assigned a value, the history file is truncated, if necessary, to contain no more than that number of lines by removing the oldest entries. The history file is also truncated to this size after writing it when a shell exits. If the value is 0, the history file is truncated to zero size. Non-numeric values and numeric values less than zero inhibit truncation. The shell sets the default value to the value of <B>HISTSIZE</B> after reading any startup files. <DT><B>HISTIGNORE</B> <DD> A colon-separated list of patterns used to decide which command lines should be saved on the history list. Each pattern is anchored at the beginning of the line and must match the complete line (no implicit `<B>*</B>' is appended). Each pattern is tested against the line after the checks specified by <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTCONTROL</B> </FONT> are applied. In addition to the normal shell pattern matching characters, `<B>&</B>' matches the previous history line. `<B>&</B>' may be escaped using a backslash; the backslash is removed before attempting a match. The second and subsequent lines of a multi-line compound command are not tested, and are added to the history regardless of the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTIGNORE</B>. </FONT> The pattern matching honors the setting of the <B>extglob</B> shell option. <DT><B>HISTSIZE</B> <DD> The number of commands to remember in the command history (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY</B> </FONT> below). If the value is 0, commands are not saved in the history list. Numeric values less than zero result in every command being saved on the history list (there is no limit). The shell sets the default value to 500 after reading any startup files. <DT><B>HISTTIMEFORMAT</B> <DD> If this variable is set and not null, its value is used as a format string for <I>strftime</I>(3) to print the time stamp associated with each history entry displayed by the <B>history</B> builtin. If this variable is set, time stamps are written to the history file so they may be preserved across shell sessions. This uses the history comment character to distinguish timestamps from other history lines. <DT><B>HOME</B> <DD> The home directory of the current user; the default argument for the <B>cd</B> builtin command. The value of this variable is also used when performing tilde expansion. <DT><B>HOSTFILE</B> <DD> Contains the name of a file in the same format as <I>/etc/hosts</I> that should be read when the shell needs to complete a hostname. The list of possible hostname completions may be changed while the shell is running; the next time hostname completion is attempted after the value is changed, <B>bash</B> adds the contents of the new file to the existing list. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HOSTFILE</B> </FONT> is set, but has no value, or does not name a readable file, <B>bash</B> attempts to read <I>/etc/hosts</I> to obtain the list of possible hostname completions. When <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HOSTFILE</B> </FONT> is unset, the hostname list is cleared. <DT><B>IFS</B> <DD> The <I>Internal Field Separator</I> that is used for word splitting after expansion and to split lines into words with the <B>read</B> builtin command. The default value is ``<space><tab><newline>''. <DT><B>IGNOREEOF</B> <DD> Controls the action of an interactive shell on receipt of an <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EOF</B> </FONT> character as the sole input. If set, the value is the number of consecutive <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EOF</B> </FONT> characters which must be typed as the first characters on an input line before <B>bash</B> exits. If the variable exists but does not have a numeric value, or has no value, the default value is 10. If it does not exist, <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EOF</B> </FONT> signifies the end of input to the shell. <DT><B>INPUTRC</B> <DD> The filename for the <B>readline</B> startup file, overriding the default of <A HREF="file:~/.inputrc"><I>~/.inputrc</I></A> (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>INSIDE_EMACS</B> <DD> If this variable appears in the environment when the shell starts, <B>bash</B> assumes that it is running inside an Emacs shell buffer and may disable line editing, depending on the value of <B>TERM</B>. <DT><B>LANG</B> <DD> Used to determine the locale category for any category not specifically selected with a variable starting with <B>LC_</B>. <DT><B>LC_ALL</B> <DD> This variable overrides the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>LANG</B> </FONT> and any other <B>LC_</B> variable specifying a locale category. <DT><B>LC_COLLATE</B> <DD> This variable determines the collation order used when sorting the results of pathname expansion, and determines the behavior of range expressions, equivalence classes, and collating sequences within pathname expansion and pattern matching. <DT><B>LC_CTYPE</B> <DD> This variable determines the interpretation of characters and the behavior of character classes within pathname expansion and pattern matching. <DT><B>LC_MESSAGES</B> <DD> This variable determines the locale used to translate double-quoted strings preceded by a <B>$</B>. <DT><B>LC_NUMERIC</B> <DD> This variable determines the locale category used for number formatting. <DT><B>LC_TIME</B> <DD> This variable determines the locale category used for data and time formatting. <DT><B>LINES</B> <DD> Used by the <B>select</B> compound command to determine the column length for printing selection lists. Automatically set if the <B>checkwinsize</B> option is enabled or in an interactive shell upon receipt of a <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGWINCH</B>. </FONT> <DT><B>MAIL</B> <DD> If this parameter is set to a file or directory name and the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>MAILPATH</B> </FONT> variable is not set, <B>bash</B> informs the user of the arrival of mail in the specified file or Maildir-format directory. <DT><B>MAILCHECK</B> <DD> Specifies how often (in seconds) <B>bash</B> checks for mail. The default is 60 seconds. When it is time to check for mail, the shell does so before displaying the primary prompt. If this variable is unset, or set to a value that is not a number greater than or equal to zero, the shell disables mail checking. <DT><B>MAILPATH</B> <DD> A colon-separated list of filenames to be checked for mail. The message to be printed when mail arrives in a particular file may be specified by separating the filename from the message with a `?'. When used in the text of the message, <B>$_</B> expands to the name of the current mailfile. Example: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>MAILPATH</B>=aq/var/mail/bfox?"You have mail":~/shell-mail?"$_ has mail!"aq <P> <B>Bash</B> can be configured to supply a default value for this variable (there is no value by default), but the location of the user mail files that it uses is system dependent (e.g., /var/mail/<B>$USER</B>). </DL> <DT><B>OPTERR</B> <DD> If set to the value 1, <B>bash</B> displays error messages generated by the <B>getopts</B> builtin command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTERR</B> </FONT> is initialized to 1 each time the shell is invoked or a shell script is executed. <DT><B>PATH</B> <DD> The search path for commands. It is a colon-separated list of directories in which the shell looks for commands (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMMAND EXECUTION</B> </FONT> below). A zero-length (null) directory name in the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> indicates the current directory. A null directory name may appear as two adjacent colons, or as an initial or trailing colon. The default path is system-dependent, and is set by the administrator who installs <B>bash</B>. A common value is <TT>/usr/local/bin:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin:/bin:/sbin</TT>. <DT><B>POSIXLY_CORRECT</B> <DD> If this variable is in the environment when <B>bash</B> starts, the shell enters <I>posix mode</I> before reading the startup files, as if the <B>--posix</B> invocation option had been supplied. If it is set while the shell is running, <B>bash</B> enables <I>posix mode</I>, as if the command <TT>set -o posix</TT> had been executed. When the shell enters <I>posix mode</I>, it sets this variable if it was not already set. <DT><B>PROMPT_COMMAND</B> <DD> If this variable is set, and is an array, the value of each set element is executed as a command prior to issuing each primary prompt. If this is set but not an array variable, its value is used as a command to execute instead. <DT><B>PROMPT_DIRTRIM</B> <DD> If set to a number greater than zero, the value is used as the number of trailing directory components to retain when expanding the <B>\w</B> and <B>\W</B> prompt string escapes (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PROMPTING</B> </FONT> below). Characters removed are replaced with an ellipsis. <DT><B>PS0</B> <DD> The value of this parameter is expanded (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PROMPTING</B> </FONT> below) and displayed by interactive shells after reading a command and before the command is executed. <DT><B>PS1</B> <DD> The value of this parameter is expanded (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PROMPTING</B> </FONT> below) and used as the primary prompt string. The default value is ``<B>\s-\v\$ </B>''. <DT><B>PS2</B> <DD> The value of this parameter is expanded as with <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS1</B> </FONT> and used as the secondary prompt string. The default is ``<B>> </B>''. <DT><B>PS3</B> <DD> The value of this parameter is used as the prompt for the <B>select</B> command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL GRAMMAR</B> </FONT> above). <DT><B>PS4</B> <DD> The value of this parameter is expanded as with <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS1</B> </FONT> and the value is printed before each command <B>bash</B> displays during an execution trace. The first character of the expanded value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS4</B> </FONT> is replicated multiple times, as necessary, to indicate multiple levels of indirection. The default is ``<B>+ </B>''. <DT><B>SHELL</B> <DD> This variable expands to the full pathname to the shell. If it is not set when the shell starts, <B>bash</B> assigns to it the full pathname of the current user's login shell. <DT><B>TIMEFORMAT</B> <DD> The value of this parameter is used as a format string specifying how the timing information for pipelines prefixed with the <B>time</B> reserved word should be displayed. The <B>%</B> character introduces an escape sequence that is expanded to a time value or other information. The escape sequences and their meanings are as follows; the braces denote optional portions. <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>%%</B> <DD> A literal <B>%</B>. <DT><B>%[</B><I>p</I>][l]R <DD> The elapsed time in seconds. <DT><B>%[</B><I>p</I>][l]U <DD> The number of CPU seconds spent in user mode. <DT><B>%[</B><I>p</I>][l]S <DD> The number of CPU seconds spent in system mode. <DT><B>%P</B> <DD> The CPU percentage, computed as (%U + %S) / %R. </DL></DL> <DT><DD> The optional <I>p</I> is a digit specifying the <I>precision</I>, the number of fractional digits after a decimal point. A value of 0 causes no decimal point or fraction to be output. At most three places after the decimal point may be specified; values of <I>p</I> greater than 3 are changed to 3. If <I>p</I> is not specified, the value 3 is used. <DT><DD> The optional <B>l</B> specifies a longer format, including minutes, of the form <I>MM</I>m<I>SS</I>.<I>FF</I>s. The value of <I>p</I> determines whether or not the fraction is included. <DT><DD> If this variable is not set, <B>bash</B> acts as if it had the value <B>$aq\nreal\t%3lR\nuser\t%3lU\nsys\t%3lSaq</B>. If the value is null, no timing information is displayed. A trailing newline is added when the format string is displayed. <DT><B>TMOUT</B> <DD> If set to a value greater than zero, <FONT SIZE=-1><B>TMOUT</B> </FONT> is treated as the default timeout for the <B>read</B> builtin. The <B>select</B> command terminates if input does not arrive after <FONT SIZE=-1><B>TMOUT</B> </FONT> seconds when input is coming from a terminal. In an interactive shell, the value is interpreted as the number of seconds to wait for a line of input after issuing the primary prompt. <B>Bash</B> terminates after waiting for that number of seconds if a complete line of input does not arrive. <DT><B>TMPDIR</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> uses its value as the name of a directory in which <B>bash</B> creates temporary files for the shell's use. <DT><B>auto_resume</B> <DD> This variable controls how the shell interacts with the user and job control. If this variable is set, single word simple commands without redirections are treated as candidates for resumption of an existing stopped job. There is no ambiguity allowed; if there is more than one job beginning with the string typed, the job most recently accessed is selected. The <I>name</I> of a stopped job, in this context, is the command line used to start it. If set to the value <I>exact</I>, the string supplied must match the name of a stopped job exactly; if set to <I>substring</I>, the string supplied needs to match a substring of the name of a stopped job. The <I>substring</I> value provides functionality analogous to the <B>%?</B> job identifier (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>JOB CONTROL</B> </FONT> below). If set to any other value, the supplied string must be a prefix of a stopped job's name; this provides functionality analogous to the <B>%</B><I>string</I> job identifier. <DT><B>histchars</B> <DD> The two or three characters which control history expansion and tokenization (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY EXPANSION</B> </FONT> below). The first character is the <I>history expansion</I> character, the character which signals the start of a history expansion, normally `<B>!</B>'. The second character is the <I>quick substitution</I> character, which is used as shorthand for re-running the previous command entered, substituting one string for another in the command. The default is `<B>^</B>'. The optional third character is the character which indicates that the remainder of the line is a comment when found as the first character of a word, normally `<B>#</B>'. The history comment character causes history substitution to be skipped for the remaining words on the line. It does not necessarily cause the shell parser to treat the rest of the line as a comment. </DL> <A NAME="lbAX"> </A> <H4>Arrays</H4> <B>Bash</B> provides one-dimensional indexed and associative array variables. Any variable may be used as an indexed array; the <B>declare</B> builtin will explicitly declare an array. There is no maximum limit on the size of an array, nor any requirement that members be indexed or assigned contiguously. Indexed arrays are referenced using integers (including arithmetic expressions) and are zero-based; associative arrays are referenced using arbitrary strings. Unless otherwise noted, indexed array indices must be non-negative integers. <P> An indexed array is created automatically if any variable is assigned to using the syntax <I>name</I>[<I>subscript</I>]=<I>value</I>. The <I>subscript</I> is treated as an arithmetic expression that must evaluate to a number. To explicitly declare an indexed array, use <B>declare -a </B><I>name</I> (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <B>declare -a </B><I>name</I>[<I>subscript</I>] is also accepted; the <I>subscript</I> is ignored. <P> Associative arrays are created using <B>declare -A </B><I>name</I>. <P> Attributes may be specified for an array variable using the <B>declare</B> and <B>readonly</B> builtins. Each attribute applies to all members of an array. <P> Arrays are assigned to using compound assignments of the form <I>name</I>=<B>(</B>value<I>1</I> ... value<I>n</I><B>)</B>, where each <I>value</I> may be of the form [<I>subscript</I>]=<I>string</I>. Indexed array assignments do not require anything but <I>string</I>. Each <I>value</I> in the list is expanded using all the shell expansions described below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EXPANSION</B>. </FONT> When assigning to indexed arrays, if the optional brackets and subscript are supplied, that index is assigned to; otherwise the index of the element assigned is the last index assigned to by the statement plus one. Indexing starts at zero. <P> When assigning to an associative array, the words in a compound assignment may be either assignment statements, for which the subscript is required, or a list of words that is interpreted as a sequence of alternating keys and values: <I>name</I>=<B>( </B><I>key1 value1 key2 value2</I> ...<B>)</B>. These are treated identically to <I>name</I>=<B>(</B> [<I>key1</I>]=<I>value1</I> [<I>key2</I>]=<I>value2</I> ...<B>)</B>. The first word in the list determines how the remaining words are interpreted; all assignments in a list must be of the same type. When using key/value pairs, the keys may not be missing or empty; a final missing value is treated like the empty string. <P> This syntax is also accepted by the <B>declare</B> builtin. Individual array elements may be assigned to using the <I>name</I>[<I>subscript</I>]=<I>value</I> syntax introduced above. When assigning to an indexed array, if <I>name</I> is subscripted by a negative number, that number is interpreted as relative to one greater than the maximum index of <I>name</I>, so negative indices count back from the end of the array, and an index of -1 references the last element. <P> Any element of an array may be referenced using ${<I>name</I>[<I>subscript</I>]}. The braces are required to avoid conflicts with pathname expansion. If <I>subscript</I> is <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the word expands to all members of <I>name</I>. These subscripts differ only when the word appears within double quotes. If the word is double-quoted, ${<I>name</I>[*]} expands to a single word with the value of each array member separated by the first character of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> special variable, and ${<I>name</I>[@]} expands each element of <I>name</I> to a separate word. When there are no array members, ${<I>name</I>[@]} expands to nothing. If the double-quoted expansion occurs within a word, the expansion of the first parameter is joined with the beginning part of the original word, and the expansion of the last parameter is joined with the last part of the original word. This is analogous to the expansion of the special parameters <B>*</B> and <B>@</B> (see <B>Special Parameters</B> above). ${#<I>name</I>[<I>subscript</I>]} expands to the length of ${<I>name</I>[<I>subscript</I>]}. If <I>subscript</I> is <B>*</B> or <B>@</B>, the expansion is the number of elements in the array. If the <I>subscript</I> used to reference an element of an indexed array evaluates to a number less than zero, it is interpreted as relative to one greater than the maximum index of the array, so negative indices count back from the end of the array, and an index of -1 references the last element. <P> Referencing an array variable without a subscript is equivalent to referencing the array with a subscript of 0. Any reference to a variable using a valid subscript is legal, and <B>bash</B> will create an array if necessary. <P> An array variable is considered set if a subscript has been assigned a value. The null string is a valid value. <P> It is possible to obtain the keys (indices) of an array as well as the values. ${<B>!</B><I>name</I>[<I>@</I>]} and ${<B>!</B><I>name</I>[<I>*</I>]} expand to the indices assigned in array variable <I>name</I>. The treatment when in double quotes is similar to the expansion of the special parameters <I>@</I> and <I>*</I> within double quotes. <P> The <B>unset</B> builtin is used to destroy arrays. <B>unset</B> <I>name</I>[<I>subscript</I>] destroys the array element at index <I>subscript</I>, for both indexed and associative arrays. Negative subscripts to indexed arrays are interpreted as described above. Unsetting the last element of an array variable does not unset the variable. <B>unset</B> <I>name</I>, where <I>name</I> is an array, or <B>unset</B> <I>name</I>[<I>subscript</I>], where <I>subscript</I> is <B>*</B> or <B>@</B>, removes the entire array. <P> When using a variable name with a subscript as an argument to a command, such as with <B>unset</B>, without using the word expansion syntax described above, the argument is subject to pathname expansion. If pathname expansion is not desired, the argument should be quoted. <P> The <B>declare</B>, <B>local</B>, and <B>readonly</B> builtins each accept a <B>-a</B> option to specify an indexed array and a <B>-A</B> option to specify an associative array. If both options are supplied, <B>-A</B> takes precedence. The <B>read</B> builtin accepts a <B>-a</B> option to assign a list of words read from the standard input to an array. The <B>set</B> and <B>declare</B> builtins display array values in a way that allows them to be reused as assignments. <A NAME="lbAY"> </A> <H3>EXPANSION</H3> Expansion is performed on the command line after it has been split into words. There are seven kinds of expansion performed: <I>brace expansion</I>, <I>tilde expansion</I>, <I>parameter and variable expansion</I>, <I>command substitution</I>, <I>arithmetic expansion</I>, <I>word splitting</I>, and <I>pathname expansion</I>. <P> The order of expansions is: brace expansion; tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, arithmetic expansion, and command substitution (done in a left-to-right fashion); word splitting; and pathname expansion. <P> On systems that can support it, there is an additional expansion available: <I>process substitution</I>. This is performed at the same time as tilde, parameter, variable, and arithmetic expansion and command substitution. <P> After these expansions are performed, quote characters present in the original word are removed unless they have been quoted themselves (<I>quote removal</I>). <P> Only brace expansion, word splitting, and pathname expansion can increase the number of words of the expansion; other expansions expand a single word to a single word. The only exceptions to this are the expansions of "<B>$@</B>" and "<B>${</B><I>name</I><B>[@]}</B>", and, in most cases, <B>$*</B> and <B>${</B><I>name</I><B>[*]}</B> as explained above (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PARAMETERS</B>). </FONT> <A NAME="lbAZ"> </A> <H4>Brace Expansion</H4> <I>Brace expansion</I> is a mechanism by which arbitrary strings may be generated. This mechanism is similar to <I>pathname expansion</I>, but the filenames generated need not exist. Patterns to be brace expanded take the form of an optional <I>preamble</I>, followed by either a series of comma-separated strings or a sequence expression between a pair of braces, followed by an optional <I>postscript</I>. The preamble is prefixed to each string contained within the braces, and the postscript is then appended to each resulting string, expanding left to right. <P> Brace expansions may be nested. The results of each expanded string are not sorted; left to right order is preserved. For example, a<B>{</B>d,c,b<B>}</B>e expands into `ade ace abe'. <P> A sequence expression takes the form <B>{</B><I>x</I><B>..</B><I>y</I><B>[..</B><I>incr</I><B>]}</B>, where <I>x</I> and <I>y</I> are either integers or single characters, and <I>incr</I>, an optional increment, is an integer. When integers are supplied, the expression expands to each number between <I>x</I> and <I>y</I>, inclusive. Supplied integers may be prefixed with <I>0</I> to force each term to have the same width. When either <I>x</I> or y begins with a zero, the shell attempts to force all generated terms to contain the same number of digits, zero-padding where necessary. When characters are supplied, the expression expands to each character lexicographically between <I>x</I> and <I>y</I>, inclusive, using the default C locale. Note that both <I>x</I> and <I>y</I> must be of the same type. When the increment is supplied, it is used as the difference between each term. The default increment is 1 or -1 as appropriate. <P> Brace expansion is performed before any other expansions, and any characters special to other expansions are preserved in the result. It is strictly textual. <B>Bash</B> does not apply any syntactic interpretation to the context of the expansion or the text between the braces. <P> A correctly-formed brace expansion must contain unquoted opening and closing braces, and at least one unquoted comma or a valid sequence expression. Any incorrectly formed brace expansion is left unchanged. A <B>{</B> or <B>,</B> may be quoted with a backslash to prevent its being considered part of a brace expression. To avoid conflicts with parameter expansion, the string <B>${</B> is not considered eligible for brace expansion, and inhibits brace expansion until the closing <B>}</B>. <P> This construct is typically used as shorthand when the common prefix of the strings to be generated is longer than in the above example: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> mkdir /usr/local/src/bash/{old,new,dist,bugs} </DL> or <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> chown root /usr/{ucb/{ex,edit},lib/{ex?.?*,how_ex}} </DL> <P> Brace expansion introduces a slight incompatibility with historical versions of <B>sh</B>. <B>sh</B> does not treat opening or closing braces specially when they appear as part of a word, and preserves them in the output. <B>Bash</B> removes braces from words as a consequence of brace expansion. For example, a word entered to <B>sh</B> as <I>file{1,2}</I> appears identically in the output. The same word is output as <I>file1 file2</I> after expansion by <B>bash</B>. If strict compatibility with <B>sh</B> is desired, start <B>bash</B> with the <B>+B</B> option or disable brace expansion with the <B>+B</B> option to the <B>set</B> command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <A NAME="lbBA"> </A> <H4>Tilde Expansion</H4> If a word begins with an unquoted tilde character (`<B>~</B>'), all of the characters preceding the first unquoted slash (or all characters, if there is no unquoted slash) are considered a <I>tilde-prefix</I>. If none of the characters in the tilde-prefix are quoted, the characters in the tilde-prefix following the tilde are treated as a possible <I>login name</I>. If this login name is the null string, the tilde is replaced with the value of the shell parameter <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HOME</B>. </FONT> If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HOME</B> </FONT> is unset, the home directory of the user executing the shell is substituted instead. Otherwise, the tilde-prefix is replaced with the home directory associated with the specified login name. <P> If the tilde-prefix is a `~+', the value of the shell variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PWD</B> </FONT> replaces the tilde-prefix. If the tilde-prefix is a `~-', the value of the shell variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OLDPWD</B>, </FONT> if it is set, is substituted. If the characters following the tilde in the tilde-prefix consist of a number <I>N</I>, optionally prefixed by a `+' or a `-', the tilde-prefix is replaced with the corresponding element from the directory stack, as it would be displayed by the <B>dirs</B> builtin invoked with the tilde-prefix as an argument. If the characters following the tilde in the tilde-prefix consist of a number without a leading `+' or `-', `+' is assumed. <P> If the login name is invalid, or the tilde expansion fails, the word is unchanged. <P> Each variable assignment is checked for unquoted tilde-prefixes immediately following a <B>:</B> or the first <B>=</B>. In these cases, tilde expansion is also performed. Consequently, one may use filenames with tildes in assignments to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>MAILPATH</B>, </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CDPATH</B>, </FONT> and the shell assigns the expanded value. <P> Bash also performs tilde expansion on words satisfying the conditions of variable assignments (as described above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PARAMETERS</B>) </FONT> when they appear as arguments to simple commands. Bash does not do this, except for the <I>declaration</I> commands listed above, when in <I>posix mode</I>. <A NAME="lbBB"> </A> <H4>Parameter Expansion</H4> The `<B>$</B>' character introduces parameter expansion, command substitution, or arithmetic expansion. The parameter name or symbol to be expanded may be enclosed in braces, which are optional but serve to protect the variable to be expanded from characters immediately following it which could be interpreted as part of the name. <P> When braces are used, the matching ending brace is the first `<B>}</B>' not escaped by a backslash or within a quoted string, and not within an embedded arithmetic expansion, command substitution, or parameter expansion. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT>${<I>parameter</I>}<DD> The value of <I>parameter</I> is substituted. The braces are required when <I>parameter</I> is a positional parameter with more than one digit, or when <I>parameter</I> is followed by a character which is not to be interpreted as part of its name. The <I>parameter</I> is a shell parameter as described above <B>PARAMETERS</B>) or an array reference (<B>Arrays</B>). </DL> <P> If the first character of <I>parameter</I> is an exclamation point (<B>!</B>), and <I>parameter</I> is not a <I>nameref</I>, it introduces a level of indirection. <B>Bash</B> uses the value formed by expanding the rest of <I>parameter</I> as the new <I>parameter</I>; this is then expanded and that value is used in the rest of the expansion, rather than the expansion of the original <I>parameter</I>. This is known as <I>indirect expansion</I>. The value is subject to tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. If <I>parameter</I> is a nameref, this expands to the name of the parameter referenced by <I>parameter</I> instead of performing the complete indirect expansion. The exceptions to this are the expansions of ${<B>!</B><I>prefix</I><B>*</B>} and ${<B>!</B><I>name</I>[<I>@</I>]} described below. The exclamation point must immediately follow the left brace in order to introduce indirection. <P> In each of the cases below, <I>word</I> is subject to tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. <P> When not performing substring expansion, using the forms documented below (e.g., <B>:-</B>), <B>bash</B> tests for a parameter that is unset or null. Omitting the colon results in a test only for a parameter that is unset. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>:-</B><I>word</I>}<DD> <B>Use Default Values</B>. If <I>parameter</I> is unset or null, the expansion of <I>word</I> is substituted. Otherwise, the value of <I>parameter</I> is substituted. <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>:=</B><I>word</I>}<DD> <B>Assign Default Values</B>. If <I>parameter</I> is unset or null, the expansion of <I>word</I> is assigned to <I>parameter</I>. The value of <I>parameter</I> is then substituted. Positional parameters and special parameters may not be assigned to in this way. <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>:?</B><I>word</I>}<DD> <B>Display Error if Null or Unset</B>. If <I>parameter</I> is null or unset, the expansion of <I>word</I> (or a message to that effect if <I>word</I> is not present) is written to the standard error and the shell, if it is not interactive, exits. Otherwise, the value of <I>parameter</I> is substituted. <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>:+</B><I>word</I>}<DD> <B>Use Alternate Value</B>. If <I>parameter</I> is null or unset, nothing is substituted, otherwise the expansion of <I>word</I> is substituted. <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>:</B><I>offset</I>}<DD> <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>:</B><I>offset</I><B>:</B><I>length</I>}<DD> <B>Substring Expansion</B>. Expands to up to <I>length</I> characters of the value of <I>parameter</I> starting at the character specified by <I>offset</I>. If <I>parameter</I> is <B>@</B>, an indexed array subscripted by <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, or an associative array name, the results differ as described below. If <I>length</I> is omitted, expands to the substring of the value of <I>parameter</I> starting at the character specified by <I>offset</I> and extending to the end of the value. <I>length</I> and <I>offset</I> are arithmetic expressions (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ARITHMETIC EVALUATION</B> </FONT> below). <P> If <I>offset</I> evaluates to a number less than zero, the value is used as an offset in characters from the end of the value of <I>parameter</I>. If <I>length</I> evaluates to a number less than zero, it is interpreted as an offset in characters from the end of the value of <I>parameter</I> rather than a number of characters, and the expansion is the characters between <I>offset</I> and that result. Note that a negative offset must be separated from the colon by at least one space to avoid being confused with the <B>:-</B> expansion. <P> If <I>parameter</I> is <B>@</B>, the result is <I>length</I> positional parameters beginning at <I>offset</I>. A negative <I>offset</I> is taken relative to one greater than the greatest positional parameter, so an offset of -1 evaluates to the last positional parameter. It is an expansion error if <I>length</I> evaluates to a number less than zero. <P> If <I>parameter</I> is an indexed array name subscripted by @ or *, the result is the <I>length</I> members of the array beginning with ${<I>parameter</I>[<I>offset</I>]}. A negative <I>offset</I> is taken relative to one greater than the maximum index of the specified array. It is an expansion error if <I>length</I> evaluates to a number less than zero. <P> Substring expansion applied to an associative array produces undefined results. <P> Substring indexing is zero-based unless the positional parameters are used, in which case the indexing starts at 1 by default. If <I>offset</I> is 0, and the positional parameters are used, <B>$0</B> is prefixed to the list. <DT>${<B>!</B><I>prefix</I><B>*</B>}<DD> <DT>${<B>!</B><I>prefix</I><B>@</B>}<DD> <B>Names matching prefix</B>. Expands to the names of variables whose names begin with <I>prefix</I>, separated by the first character of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> special variable. When <I>@</I> is used and the expansion appears within double quotes, each variable name expands to a separate word. <DT>${<B>!</B><I>name</I>[<I>@</I>]}<DD> <DT>${<B>!</B><I>name</I>[<I>*</I>]}<DD> <B>List of array keys</B>. If <I>name</I> is an array variable, expands to the list of array indices (keys) assigned in <I>name</I>. If <I>name</I> is not an array, expands to 0 if <I>name</I> is set and null otherwise. When <I>@</I> is used and the expansion appears within double quotes, each key expands to a separate word. <DT>${<B>#</B><I>parameter</I>}<DD> <B>Parameter length</B>. The length in characters of the value of <I>parameter</I> is substituted. If <I>parameter</I> is <B>*</B> or <B>@</B>, the value substituted is the number of positional parameters. If <I>parameter</I> is an array name subscripted by <B>*</B> or <B>@</B>, the value substituted is the number of elements in the array. If <I>parameter</I> is an indexed array name subscripted by a negative number, that number is interpreted as relative to one greater than the maximum index of <I>parameter</I>, so negative indices count back from the end of the array, and an index of -1 references the last element. <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>#</B><I>word</I>}<DD> <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>##</B><I>word</I>}<DD> <B>Remove matching prefix pattern</B>. The <I>word</I> is expanded to produce a pattern just as in pathname expansion, and matched against the expanded value of <I>parameter</I> using the rules described under <B>Pattern Matching</B> below. If the pattern matches the beginning of the value of <I>parameter</I>, then the result of the expansion is the expanded value of <I>parameter</I> with the shortest matching pattern (the ``<B>#</B>'' case) or the longest matching pattern (the ``<B>##</B>'' case) deleted. If <I>parameter</I> is <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the pattern removal operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <I>parameter</I> is an array variable subscripted with <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the pattern removal operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>%</B><I>word</I>}<DD> <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>%%</B><I>word</I>}<DD> <B>Remove matching suffix pattern</B>. The <I>word</I> is expanded to produce a pattern just as in pathname expansion, and matched against the expanded value of <I>parameter</I> using the rules described under <B>Pattern Matching</B> below. If the pattern matches a trailing portion of the expanded value of <I>parameter</I>, then the result of the expansion is the expanded value of <I>parameter</I> with the shortest matching pattern (the ``<B>%</B>'' case) or the longest matching pattern (the ``<B>%%</B>'' case) deleted. If <I>parameter</I> is <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the pattern removal operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <I>parameter</I> is an array variable subscripted with <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the pattern removal operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>/</B><I>pattern</I><B>/</B><I>string</I>}<DD> <B>Pattern substitution</B>. The <I>pattern</I> is expanded to produce a pattern just as in pathname expansion, <I>Parameter</I> is expanded and the longest match of <I>pattern</I> against its value is replaced with <I>string</I>. The match is performed using the rules described under <B>Pattern Matching</B> below. If <I>pattern</I> begins with <B>/</B>, all matches of <I>pattern</I> are replaced with <I>string</I>. Normally only the first match is replaced. If <I>pattern</I> begins with <B>#</B>, it must match at the beginning of the expanded value of <I>parameter</I>. If <I>pattern</I> begins with <B>%</B>, it must match at the end of the expanded value of <I>parameter</I>. If <I>string</I> is null, matches of <I>pattern</I> are deleted and the <B>/</B> following <I>pattern</I> may be omitted. If the <B>nocasematch</B> shell option is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. If <I>parameter</I> is <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the substitution operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <I>parameter</I> is an array variable subscripted with <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the substitution operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>^</B><I>pattern</I>}<DD> <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>^^</B><I>pattern</I>}<DD> <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>,</B><I>pattern</I>}<DD> <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>,,</B><I>pattern</I>}<DD> <B>Case modification</B>. This expansion modifies the case of alphabetic characters in <I>parameter</I>. The <I>pattern</I> is expanded to produce a pattern just as in pathname expansion. Each character in the expanded value of <I>parameter</I> is tested against <I>pattern</I>, and, if it matches the pattern, its case is converted. The pattern should not attempt to match more than one character. The <B>^</B> operator converts lowercase letters matching <I>pattern</I> to uppercase; the <B>,</B> operator converts matching uppercase letters to lowercase. The <B>^^</B> and <B>,,</B> expansions convert each matched character in the expanded value; the <B>^</B> and <B>,</B> expansions match and convert only the first character in the expanded value. If <I>pattern</I> is omitted, it is treated like a <B>?</B>, which matches every character. If <I>parameter</I> is <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the case modification operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <I>parameter</I> is an array variable subscripted with <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the case modification operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. <DT>${<I>parameter</I><B>@</B><I>operator</I>}<DD> <B>Parameter transformation</B>. The expansion is either a transformation of the value of <I>parameter</I> or information about <I>parameter</I> itself, depending on the value of <I>operator</I>. Each <I>operator</I> is a single letter: <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>U</B> <DD> The expansion is a string that is the value of <I>parameter</I> with lowercase alphabetic characters converted to uppercase. <DT><B>u</B> <DD> The expansion is a string that is the value of <I>parameter</I> with the first character converted to uppercase, if it is alphabetic. <DT><B>L</B> <DD> The expansion is a string that is the value of <I>parameter</I> with uppercase alphabetic characters converted to lowercase. <DT><B>Q</B> <DD> The expansion is a string that is the value of <I>parameter</I> quoted in a format that can be reused as input. <DT><B>E</B> <DD> The expansion is a string that is the value of <I>parameter</I> with backslash escape sequences expanded as with the <B>$'...'</B> quoting mechanism. <DT><B>P</B> <DD> The expansion is a string that is the result of expanding the value of <I>parameter</I> as if it were a prompt string (see <B>PROMPTING</B> below). <DT><B>A</B> <DD> The expansion is a string in the form of an assignment statement or <B>declare</B> command that, if evaluated, will recreate <I>parameter</I> with its attributes and value. <DT><B>K</B> <DD> Produces a possibly-quoted version of the value of <I>parameter</I>, except that it prints the values of indexed and associative arrays as a sequence of quoted key-value pairs (see <B>Arrays</B> above). <DT><B>a</B> <DD> The expansion is a string consisting of flag values representing <I>parameter</I>'s attributes. </DL> <P> If <I>parameter</I> is <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <I>parameter</I> is an array variable subscripted with <B>@</B> or <B>*</B>, the operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. <P> The result of the expansion is subject to word splitting and pathname expansion as described below. </DL> </DL> <A NAME="lbBC"> </A> <H4>Command Substitution</H4> <I>Command substitution</I> allows the output of a command to replace the command name. There are two forms: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>$(</B><I>command</I><B>)</B> </DL> or <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <B>`</B><I>command</I><B>`</B> </DL> <P> <B>Bash</B> performs the expansion by executing <I>command</I> in a subshell environment and replacing the command substitution with the standard output of the command, with any trailing newlines deleted. Embedded newlines are not deleted, but they may be removed during word splitting. The command substitution <B>$(cat </B><I>file</I>) can be replaced by the equivalent but faster <B>$(< </B><I>file</I>). <P> When the old-style backquote form of substitution is used, backslash retains its literal meaning except when followed by <B>$</B>, <B>`</B>, or <B>\</B>. The first backquote not preceded by a backslash terminates the command substitution. When using the $(<I>command</I>) form, all characters between the parentheses make up the command; none are treated specially. <P> Command substitutions may be nested. To nest when using the backquoted form, escape the inner backquotes with backslashes. <P> If the substitution appears within double quotes, word splitting and pathname expansion are not performed on the results. <A NAME="lbBD"> </A> <H4>Arithmetic Expansion</H4> Arithmetic expansion allows the evaluation of an arithmetic expression and the substitution of the result. The format for arithmetic expansion is: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>$((</B><I>expression</I><B>))</B> </DL> <P> The <I>expression</I> is treated as if it were within double quotes, but a double quote inside the parentheses is not treated specially. All tokens in the expression undergo parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and quote removal. The result is treated as the arithmetic expression to be evaluated. Arithmetic expansions may be nested. <P> The evaluation is performed according to the rules listed below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ARITHMETIC EVALUATION</B>. </FONT> If <I>expression</I> is invalid, <B>bash</B> prints a message indicating failure and no substitution occurs. <A NAME="lbBE"> </A> <H4>Process Substitution</H4> <I>Process substitution</I> allows a process's input or output to be referred to using a filename. It takes the form of <B><(</B><I>list</I><B>)</B> or <B>>(</B><I>list</I><B>)</B>. The process <I>list</I> is run asynchronously, and its input or output appears as a filename. This filename is passed as an argument to the current command as the result of the expansion. If the <B>>(</B><I>list</I><B>)</B> form is used, writing to the file will provide input for <I>list</I>. If the <B><(</B><I>list</I><B>)</B> form is used, the file passed as an argument should be read to obtain the output of <I>list</I>. Process substitution is supported on systems that support named pipes (<I>FIFOs</I>) or the <B>/dev/fd</B> method of naming open files. <P> When available, process substitution is performed simultaneously with parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. <A NAME="lbBF"> </A> <H4>Word Splitting</H4> The shell scans the results of parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion that did not occur within double quotes for <I>word splitting</I>. <P> The shell treats each character of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> as a delimiter, and splits the results of the other expansions into words using these characters as field terminators. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> is unset, or its value is exactly <B><space><tab><newline></B>, the default, then sequences of <B><space></B>, <B><tab></B>, and <B><newline></B> at the beginning and end of the results of the previous expansions are ignored, and any sequence of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> characters not at the beginning or end serves to delimit words. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> has a value other than the default, then sequences of the whitespace characters <B>space</B>, <B>tab</B>, and <B>newline</B> are ignored at the beginning and end of the word, as long as the whitespace character is in the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> (an <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> whitespace character). Any character in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> that is not <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> whitespace, along with any adjacent <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> whitespace characters, delimits a field. A sequence of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> whitespace characters is also treated as a delimiter. If the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> is null, no word splitting occurs. <P> Explicit null arguments (<B>""</B> or <B>aqaq</B>) are retained and passed to commands as empty strings. Unquoted implicit null arguments, resulting from the expansion of parameters that have no values, are removed. If a parameter with no value is expanded within double quotes, a null argument results and is retained and passed to a command as an empty string. When a quoted null argument appears as part of a word whose expansion is non-null, the null argument is removed. That is, the word <TT>-daqaq</TT> becomes <TT>-d</TT> after word splitting and null argument removal. <P> Note that if no expansion occurs, no splitting is performed. <A NAME="lbBG"> </A> <H4>Pathname Expansion</H4> After word splitting, unless the <B>-f</B> option has been set, <B>bash</B> scans each word for the characters <B>*</B>, <B>?</B>, and <B>[</B>. If one of these characters appears, and is not quoted, then the word is regarded as a <I>pattern</I>, and replaced with an alphabetically sorted list of filenames matching the pattern (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>Pattern Matching</B> </FONT> below). If no matching filenames are found, and the shell option <B>nullglob</B> is not enabled, the word is left unchanged. If the <B>nullglob</B> option is set, and no matches are found, the word is removed. If the <B>failglob</B> shell option is set, and no matches are found, an error message is printed and the command is not executed. If the shell option <B>nocaseglob</B> is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. When a pattern is used for pathname expansion, the character <B>``.''</B> at the start of a name or immediately following a slash must be matched explicitly, unless the shell option <B>dotglob</B> is set. The filenames <B>``.''</B> and <B>``..''</B> must always be matched explicitly, even if <B>dotglob</B> is set. In other cases, the <B>``.''</B> character is not treated specially. When matching a pathname, the slash character must always be matched explicitly by a slash in the pattern, but in other matching contexts it can be matched by a special pattern character as described below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>Pattern Matching</B>. </FONT> See the description of <B>shopt</B> below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> for a description of the <B>nocaseglob</B>, <B>nullglob</B>, <B>failglob</B>, and <B>dotglob</B> shell options. <P> The <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> shell variable may be used to restrict the set of file names matching a <I>pattern</I>. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> is set, each matching file name that also matches one of the patterns in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> is removed from the list of matches. If the <B>nocaseglob</B> option is set, the matching against the patterns in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> is performed without regard to case. The filenames <B>``.''</B> and <B>``..''</B> are always ignored when <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> is set and not null. However, setting <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> to a non-null value has the effect of enabling the <B>dotglob</B> shell option, so all other filenames beginning with a <B>``.''</B> will match. To get the old behavior of ignoring filenames beginning with a <B>``.''</B>, make <B>``.*''</B> one of the patterns in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B>. </FONT> The <B>dotglob</B> option is disabled when <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> is unset. The pattern matching honors the setting of the <B>extglob</B> shell option. <P> <B>Pattern Matching</B> <P> Any character that appears in a pattern, other than the special pattern characters described below, matches itself. The NUL character may not occur in a pattern. A backslash escapes the following character; the escaping backslash is discarded when matching. The special pattern characters must be quoted if they are to be matched literally. <P> The special pattern characters have the following meanings: <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>*</B> <DD> Matches any string, including the null string. When the <B>globstar</B> shell option is enabled, and <B>*</B> is used in a pathname expansion context, two adjacent <B>*</B>s used as a single pattern will match all files and zero or more directories and subdirectories. If followed by a <B>/</B>, two adjacent <B>*</B>s will match only directories and subdirectories. <DT><B>?</B> <DD> Matches any single character. <DT><B>[...]</B> <DD> Matches any one of the enclosed characters. A pair of characters separated by a hyphen denotes a <I>range expression</I>; any character that falls between those two characters, inclusive, using the current locale's collating sequence and character set, is matched. If the first character following the <B>[</B> is a <B>!</B> or a <B>^</B> then any character not enclosed is matched. The sorting order of characters in range expressions is determined by the current locale and the values of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>LC_COLLATE</B> </FONT> or <FONT SIZE=-1><B>LC_ALL</B> </FONT> shell variables, if set. To obtain the traditional interpretation of range expressions, where <B>[a-d]</B> is equivalent to <B>[abcd]</B>, set value of the <B>LC_ALL</B> shell variable to <B>C</B>, or enable the <B>globasciiranges</B> shell option. A <B>-</B> may be matched by including it as the first or last character in the set. A <B>]</B> may be matched by including it as the first character in the set. <BR> <P> Within <B>[</B> and <B>]</B>, <I>character classes</I> can be specified using the syntax <B>[:</B><I>class</I><B>:]</B>, where <I>class</I> is one of the following classes defined in the POSIX standard: </DL> <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <B> </B> alnum alpha ascii blank cntrl digit graph lower print punct space upper word xdigit <BR> A character class matches any character belonging to that class. The <B>word</B> character class matches letters, digits, and the character _. <BR> <P> Within <B>[</B> and <B>]</B>, an <I>equivalence class</I> can be specified using the syntax <B>[=</B><I>c</I><B>=]</B>, which matches all characters with the same collation weight (as defined by the current locale) as the character <I>c</I>. <BR> <P> Within <B>[</B> and <B>]</B>, the syntax <B>[.</B><I>symbol</I><B>.]</B> matches the collating symbol <I>symbol</I>. </DL> </DL> <P> If the <B>extglob</B> shell option is enabled using the <B>shopt</B> builtin, several extended pattern matching operators are recognized. In the following description, a <I>pattern-list</I> is a list of one or more patterns separated by a <B>|</B>. Composite patterns may be formed using one or more of the following sub-patterns: <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>?(</B><I>pattern-list</I><B>)</B><DD> Matches zero or one occurrence of the given patterns <DT><B>*(</B><I>pattern-list</I><B>)</B><DD> Matches zero or more occurrences of the given patterns <DT><B>+(</B><I>pattern-list</I><B>)</B><DD> Matches one or more occurrences of the given patterns <DT><B>@(</B><I>pattern-list</I><B>)</B><DD> Matches one of the given patterns <DT><B>!(</B><I>pattern-list</I><B>)</B><DD> Matches anything except one of the given patterns </DL></DL> <P> Complicated extended pattern matching against long strings is slow, especially when the patterns contain alternations and the strings contain multiple matches. Using separate matches against shorter strings, or using arrays of strings instead of a single long string, may be faster. <A NAME="lbBH"> </A> <H4>Quote Removal</H4> After the preceding expansions, all unquoted occurrences of the characters <B>\</B>, <B>aq</B>, and <B>"</B> that did not result from one of the above expansions are removed. <A NAME="lbBI"> </A> <H3>REDIRECTION</H3> Before a command is executed, its input and output may be <I>redirected</I> using a special notation interpreted by the shell. Redirection allows commands' file handles to be duplicated, opened, closed, made to refer to different files, and can change the files the command reads from and writes to. Redirection may also be used to modify file handles in the current shell execution environment. The following redirection operators may precede or appear anywhere within a <I>simple command</I> or may follow a <I>command</I>. Redirections are processed in the order they appear, from left to right. <P> Each redirection that may be preceded by a file descriptor number may instead be preceded by a word of the form {<I>varname</I>}. In this case, for each redirection operator except >&- and <&-, the shell will allocate a file descriptor greater than or equal to 10 and assign it to <I>varname</I>. If >&- or <&- is preceded by {<I>varname</I>}, the value of <I>varname</I> defines the file descriptor to close. If {<I>varname</I>} is supplied, the redirection persists beyond the scope of the command, allowing the shell programmer to manage the file descriptor himself. <P> In the following descriptions, if the file descriptor number is omitted, and the first character of the redirection operator is <B><</B>, the redirection refers to the standard input (file descriptor 0). If the first character of the redirection operator is <B>></B>, the redirection refers to the standard output (file descriptor 1). <P> The word following the redirection operator in the following descriptions, unless otherwise noted, is subjected to brace expansion, tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, quote removal, pathname expansion, and word splitting. If it expands to more than one word, <B>bash</B> reports an error. <P> Note that the order of redirections is significant. For example, the command <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> ls <B>></B> dirlist 2<B>>&</B>1 </DL> <P> directs both standard output and standard error to the file <I>dirlist</I>, while the command <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> ls 2<B>>&</B>1 <B>></B> dirlist </DL> <P> directs only the standard output to file <I>dirlist</I>, because the standard error was duplicated from the standard output before the standard output was redirected to <I>dirlist</I>. <P> <B>Bash</B> handles several filenames specially when they are used in redirections, as described in the following table. If the operating system on which <B>bash</B> is running provides these special files, bash will use them; otherwise it will emulate them internally with the behavior described below. <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>/dev/fd/</B><I>fd</I> <DD> If <I>fd</I> is a valid integer, file descriptor <I>fd</I> is duplicated. <DT><B>/dev/stdin</B> <DD> File descriptor 0 is duplicated. <DT><B>/dev/stdout</B> <DD> File descriptor 1 is duplicated. <DT><B>/dev/stderr</B> <DD> File descriptor 2 is duplicated. <DT><B>/dev/tcp/</B><I>host</I>/<I>port</I> <DD> If <I>host</I> is a valid hostname or Internet address, and <I>port</I> is an integer port number or service name, <B>bash</B> attempts to open the corresponding TCP socket. <DT><B>/dev/udp/</B><I>host</I>/<I>port</I> <DD> If <I>host</I> is a valid hostname or Internet address, and <I>port</I> is an integer port number or service name, <B>bash</B> attempts to open the corresponding UDP socket. </DL></DL> <P> A failure to open or create a file causes the redirection to fail. <P> Redirections using file descriptors greater than 9 should be used with care, as they may conflict with file descriptors the shell uses internally. <A NAME="lbBJ"> </A> <H4>Redirecting Input</H4> Redirection of input causes the file whose name results from the expansion of <I>word</I> to be opened for reading on file descriptor <I>n</I>, or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if <I>n</I> is not specified. <P> The general format for redirecting input is: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [<I>n</I>]<B><</B><I>word</I> </DL> <A NAME="lbBK"> </A> <H4>Redirecting Output</H4> Redirection of output causes the file whose name results from the expansion of <I>word</I> to be opened for writing on file descriptor <I>n</I>, or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if <I>n</I> is not specified. If the file does not exist it is created; if it does exist it is truncated to zero size. <P> The general format for redirecting output is: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [<I>n</I>]<B>></B><I>word</I> </DL> <P> If the redirection operator is <B>></B>, and the <B>noclobber</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin has been enabled, the redirection will fail if the file whose name results from the expansion of <I>word</I> exists and is a regular file. If the redirection operator is <B>>|</B>, or the redirection operator is <B>></B> and the <B>noclobber</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin command is not enabled, the redirection is attempted even if the file named by <I>word</I> exists. <A NAME="lbBL"> </A> <H4>Appending Redirected Output</H4> Redirection of output in this fashion causes the file whose name results from the expansion of <I>word</I> to be opened for appending on file descriptor <I>n</I>, or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if <I>n</I> is not specified. If the file does not exist it is created. <P> The general format for appending output is: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [<I>n</I>]<B>>></B><I>word</I> </DL> <A NAME="lbBM"> </A> <H4>Redirecting Standard Output and Standard Error</H4> This construct allows both the standard output (file descriptor 1) and the standard error output (file descriptor 2) to be redirected to the file whose name is the expansion of <I>word</I>. <P> There are two formats for redirecting standard output and standard error: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>&></B><I>word</I> </DL> and <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <B>>&</B><I>word</I> </DL> <P> Of the two forms, the first is preferred. This is semantically equivalent to <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>></B><I>word</I> 2<B>>&</B>1 </DL> <P> When using the second form, <I>word</I> may not expand to a number or <B>-</B>. If it does, other redirection operators apply (see <B>Duplicating File Descriptors</B> below) for compatibility reasons. <A NAME="lbBN"> </A> <H4>Appending Standard Output and Standard Error</H4> This construct allows both the standard output (file descriptor 1) and the standard error output (file descriptor 2) to be appended to the file whose name is the expansion of <I>word</I>. <P> The format for appending standard output and standard error is: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>&>></B><I>word</I> </DL> <P> This is semantically equivalent to <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>>></B><I>word</I> 2<B>>&</B>1 </DL> <P> (see <B>Duplicating File Descriptors</B> below). <A NAME="lbBO"> </A> <H4>Here Documents</H4> This type of redirection instructs the shell to read input from the current source until a line containing only <I>delimiter</I> (with no trailing blanks) is seen. All of the lines read up to that point are then used as the standard input (or file descriptor <I>n</I> if <I>n</I> is specified) for a command. <P> The format of here-documents is: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <PRE> [<I>n</I>]<B><<</B>[<B>-</B>]<I>word</I> <I>here-document</I> <I>delimiter</I> </PRE> </DL> <P> No parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, or pathname expansion is performed on <I>word</I>. If any part of <I>word</I> is quoted, the <I>delimiter</I> is the result of quote removal on <I>word</I>, and the lines in the here-document are not expanded. If <I>word</I> is unquoted, all lines of the here-document are subjected to parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion, the character sequence <B>\<newline></B> is ignored, and <B>\</B> must be used to quote the characters <B>\</B>, <B>$</B>, and <B>`</B>. <P> If the redirection operator is <B><<-</B>, then all leading tab characters are stripped from input lines and the line containing <I>delimiter</I>. This allows here-documents within shell scripts to be indented in a natural fashion. <A NAME="lbBP"> </A> <H4>Here Strings</H4> A variant of here documents, the format is: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <PRE> [<I>n</I>]<B><<<</B><I>word</I> </PRE> </DL> <P> The <I>word</I> undergoes tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal. Pathname expansion and word splitting are not performed. The result is supplied as a single string, with a newline appended, to the command on its standard input (or file descriptor <I>n</I> if <I>n</I> is specified). <A NAME="lbBQ"> </A> <H4>Duplicating File Descriptors</H4> The redirection operator <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [<I>n</I>]<B><&</B><I>word</I> </DL> <P> is used to duplicate input file descriptors. If <I>word</I> expands to one or more digits, the file descriptor denoted by <I>n</I> is made to be a copy of that file descriptor. If the digits in <I>word</I> do not specify a file descriptor open for input, a redirection error occurs. If <I>word</I> evaluates to <B>-</B>, file descriptor <I>n</I> is closed. If <I>n</I> is not specified, the standard input (file descriptor 0) is used. <P> The operator <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [<I>n</I>]<B>>&</B><I>word</I> </DL> <P> is used similarly to duplicate output file descriptors. If <I>n</I> is not specified, the standard output (file descriptor 1) is used. If the digits in <I>word</I> do not specify a file descriptor open for output, a redirection error occurs. If <I>word</I> evaluates to <B>-</B>, file descriptor <I>n</I> is closed. As a special case, if <I>n</I> is omitted, and <I>word</I> does not expand to one or more digits or <B>-</B>, the standard output and standard error are redirected as described previously. <A NAME="lbBR"> </A> <H4>Moving File Descriptors</H4> The redirection operator <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [<I>n</I>]<B><&</B><I>digit</I><B>-</B> </DL> <P> moves the file descriptor <I>digit</I> to file descriptor <I>n</I>, or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if <I>n</I> is not specified. <I>digit</I> is closed after being duplicated to <I>n</I>. <P> Similarly, the redirection operator <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [<I>n</I>]<B>>&</B><I>digit</I><B>-</B> </DL> <P> moves the file descriptor <I>digit</I> to file descriptor <I>n</I>, or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if <I>n</I> is not specified. <A NAME="lbBS"> </A> <H4>Opening File Descriptors for Reading and Writing</H4> The redirection operator <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [<I>n</I>]<B><></B><I>word</I> </DL> <P> causes the file whose name is the expansion of <I>word</I> to be opened for both reading and writing on file descriptor <I>n</I>, or on file descriptor 0 if <I>n</I> is not specified. If the file does not exist, it is created. <A NAME="lbBT"> </A> <H3>ALIASES</H3> <I>Aliases</I> allow a string to be substituted for a word when it is used as the first word of a simple command. The shell maintains a list of aliases that may be set and unset with the <B>alias</B> and <B>unalias</B> builtin commands (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). The first word of each simple command, if unquoted, is checked to see if it has an alias. If so, that word is replaced by the text of the alias. The characters <B>/</B>, <B>$</B>, <B>`</B>, and <B>=</B> and any of the shell <I>metacharacters</I> or quoting characters listed above may not appear in an alias name. The replacement text may contain any valid shell input, including shell metacharacters. The first word of the replacement text is tested for aliases, but a word that is identical to an alias being expanded is not expanded a second time. This means that one may alias <B>ls</B> to <B>ls -F</B>, for instance, and <B>bash</B> does not try to recursively expand the replacement text. If the last character of the alias value is a <I>blank</I>, then the next command word following the alias is also checked for alias expansion. <P> Aliases are created and listed with the <B>alias</B> command, and removed with the <B>unalias</B> command. <P> There is no mechanism for using arguments in the replacement text. If arguments are needed, a shell function should be used (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCTIONS</B> </FONT> below). <P> Aliases are not expanded when the shell is not interactive, unless the <B>expand_aliases</B> shell option is set using <B>shopt</B> (see the description of <B>shopt</B> under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B></FONT> below). <P> The rules concerning the definition and use of aliases are somewhat confusing. <B>Bash</B> always reads at least one complete line of input, and all lines that make up a compound command, before executing any of the commands on that line or the compound command. Aliases are expanded when a command is read, not when it is executed. Therefore, an alias definition appearing on the same line as another command does not take effect until the next line of input is read. The commands following the alias definition on that line are not affected by the new alias. This behavior is also an issue when functions are executed. Aliases are expanded when a function definition is read, not when the function is executed, because a function definition is itself a command. As a consequence, aliases defined in a function are not available until after that function is executed. To be safe, always put alias definitions on a separate line, and do not use <B>alias</B> in compound commands. <P> For almost every purpose, aliases are superseded by shell functions. <A NAME="lbBU"> </A> <H3>FUNCTIONS</H3> A shell function, defined as described above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL GRAMMAR</B>, </FONT> stores a series of commands for later execution. When the name of a shell function is used as a simple command name, the list of commands associated with that function name is executed. Functions are executed in the context of the current shell; no new process is created to interpret them (contrast this with the execution of a shell script). When a function is executed, the arguments to the function become the positional parameters during its execution. The special parameter <B>#</B> is updated to reflect the change. Special parameter <B>0</B> is unchanged. The first element of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCNAME</B> </FONT> variable is set to the name of the function while the function is executing. <P> All other aspects of the shell execution environment are identical between a function and its caller with these exceptions: the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>DEBUG</B> </FONT> and <B>RETURN</B> traps (see the description of the <B>trap</B> builtin under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below) are not inherited unless the function has been given the <B>trace</B> attribute (see the description of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>declare</B> </FONT> builtin below) or the <B>-o functrace</B> shell option has been enabled with the <B>set</B> builtin (in which case all functions inherit the <B>DEBUG</B> and <B>RETURN</B> traps), and the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ERR</B> </FONT> trap is not inherited unless the <B>-o errtrace</B> shell option has been enabled. <P> Variables local to the function may be declared with the <B>local</B> builtin command. Ordinarily, variables and their values are shared between the function and its caller. If a variable is declared <B>local</B>, the variable's visible scope is restricted to that function and its children (including the functions it calls). Local variables "shadow" variables with the same name declared at previous scopes. For instance, a local variable declared in a function hides a global variable of the same name: references and assignments refer to the local variable, leaving the global variable unmodified. When the function returns, the global variable is once again visible. <P> The shell uses <I>dynamic scoping</I> to control a variable's visibility within functions. With dynamic scoping, visible variables and their values are a result of the sequence of function calls that caused execution to reach the current function. The value of a variable that a function sees depends on its value within its caller, if any, whether that caller is the "global" scope or another shell function. This is also the value that a local variable declaration "shadows", and the value that is restored when the function returns. <P> For example, if a variable <I>var</I> is declared as local in function <I>func1</I>, and <I>func1</I> calls another function <I>func2</I>, references to <I>var</I> made from within <I>func2</I> will resolve to the local variable <I>var</I> from <I>func1</I>, shadowing any global variable named <I>var</I>. <P> The <B>unset</B> builtin also acts using the same dynamic scope: if a variable is local to the current scope, <B>unset</B> will unset it; otherwise the unset will refer to the variable found in any calling scope as described above. If a variable at the current local scope is unset, it will remain so until it is reset in that scope or until the function returns. Once the function returns, any instance of the variable at a previous scope will become visible. If the unset acts on a variable at a previous scope, any instance of a variable with that name that had been shadowed will become visible. <P> The <B>FUNCNEST</B> variable, if set to a numeric value greater than 0, defines a maximum function nesting level. Function invocations that exceed the limit cause the entire command to abort. <P> If the builtin command <B>return</B> is executed in a function, the function completes and execution resumes with the next command after the function call. Any command associated with the <B>RETURN</B> trap is executed before execution resumes. When a function completes, the values of the positional parameters and the special parameter <B>#</B> are restored to the values they had prior to the function's execution. <P> Function names and definitions may be listed with the <B>-f</B> option to the <B>declare</B> or <B>typeset</B> builtin commands. The <B>-F</B> option to <B>declare</B> or <B>typeset</B> will list the function names only (and optionally the source file and line number, if the <B>extdebug</B> shell option is enabled). Functions may be exported so that subshells automatically have them defined with the <B>-f</B> option to the <B>export</B> builtin. A function definition may be deleted using the <B>-f</B> option to the <B>unset</B> builtin. <P> Functions may be recursive. The <B>FUNCNEST</B> variable may be used to limit the depth of the function call stack and restrict the number of function invocations. By default, no limit is imposed on the number of recursive calls. <A NAME="lbBV"> </A> <H3>ARITHMETIC EVALUATION</H3> The shell allows arithmetic expressions to be evaluated, under certain circumstances (see the <B>let</B> and <B>declare</B> builtin commands, the <B>((</B> compound command, and <B>Arithmetic Expansion</B>). Evaluation is done in fixed-width integers with no check for overflow, though division by 0 is trapped and flagged as an error. The operators and their precedence, associativity, and values are the same as in the C language. The following list of operators is grouped into levels of equal-precedence operators. The levels are listed in order of decreasing precedence. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B></B><I>id</I>++ <I>id</I>-- <DD> variable post-increment and post-decrement <DT><B>- +</B> <DD> unary minus and plus <DT><B>++</B><I>id</I> --<I>id</I> <DD> variable pre-increment and pre-decrement <DT><B>! ~</B> <DD> logical and bitwise negation <DT><B>**</B> <DD> exponentiation <DT><B>* / %</B> <DD> multiplication, division, remainder <DT><B>+ -</B> <DD> addition, subtraction <DT><B><< >></B> <DD> left and right bitwise shifts <DT><B><= >= < ></B> <DD> comparison <DT><B>== !=</B> <DD> equality and inequality <DT><B>&</B> <DD> bitwise AND <DT><B>^</B> <DD> bitwise exclusive OR <DT><B>|</B> <DD> bitwise OR <DT><B>&&</B> <DD> logical AND <DT><B>||</B> <DD> logical OR <DT><B></B><I>expr</I>?<I>expr</I>:<I>expr</I> <DD> conditional operator <DT><B>= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=</B> <DD> assignment <DT><B></B><I>expr1</I> , <I>expr2</I> <DD> comma </DL> <P> Shell variables are allowed as operands; parameter expansion is performed before the expression is evaluated. Within an expression, shell variables may also be referenced by name without using the parameter expansion syntax. A shell variable that is null or unset evaluates to 0 when referenced by name without using the parameter expansion syntax. The value of a variable is evaluated as an arithmetic expression when it is referenced, or when a variable which has been given the <I>integer</I> attribute using <B>declare -i</B> is assigned a value. A null value evaluates to 0. A shell variable need not have its <I>integer</I> attribute turned on to be used in an expression. <P> Integer constants follow the C language definition, without suffixes or character constants. Constants with a leading 0 are interpreted as octal numbers. A leading 0x or 0X denotes hexadecimal. Otherwise, numbers take the form [<I>base#</I>]n, where the optional <I>base</I> is a decimal number between 2 and 64 representing the arithmetic base, and <I>n</I> is a number in that base. If <I>base#</I> is omitted, then base 10 is used. When specifying <I>n</I>, if a non-digit is required, the digits greater than 9 are represented by the lowercase letters, the uppercase letters, @, and _, in that order. If <I>base</I> is less than or equal to 36, lowercase and uppercase letters may be used interchangeably to represent numbers between 10 and 35. <P> Operators are evaluated in order of precedence. Sub-expressions in parentheses are evaluated first and may override the precedence rules above. <A NAME="lbBW"> </A> <H3>CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS</H3> Conditional expressions are used by the <B>[[</B> compound command and the <B>test</B> and <B>[</B> builtin commands to test file attributes and perform string and arithmetic comparisons. The <B>test</B> and <B>[</B> commands determine their behavior based on the number of arguments; see the descriptions of those commands for any other command-specific actions. <P> Expressions are formed from the following unary or binary primaries. <B>Bash</B> handles several filenames specially when they are used in expressions. If the operating system on which <B>bash</B> is running provides these special files, bash will use them; otherwise it will emulate them internally with this behavior: If any <I>file</I> argument to one of the primaries is of the form <I>/dev/fd/n</I>, then file descriptor <I>n</I> is checked. If the <I>file</I> argument to one of the primaries is one of <I>/dev/stdin</I>, <I>/dev/stdout</I>, or <I>/dev/stderr</I>, file descriptor 0, 1, or 2, respectively, is checked. <P> Unless otherwise specified, primaries that operate on files follow symbolic links and operate on the target of the link, rather than the link itself. <P> When used with <B>[[</B>, the <B><</B> and <B>></B> operators sort lexicographically using the current locale. The <B>test</B> command sorts using ASCII ordering. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-a </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists. <DT><B>-b </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is a block special file. <DT><B>-c </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is a character special file. <DT><B>-d </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is a directory. <DT><B>-e </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists. <DT><B>-f </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is a regular file. <DT><B>-g </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is set-group-id. <DT><B>-h </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is a symbolic link. <DT><B>-k </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and its ``sticky'' bit is set. <DT><B>-p </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is a named pipe (FIFO). <DT><B>-r </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is readable. <DT><B>-s </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and has a size greater than zero. <DT><B>-t </B><I>fd</I> <DD> True if file descriptor <I>fd</I> is open and refers to a terminal. <DT><B>-u </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and its set-user-id bit is set. <DT><B>-w </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is writable. <DT><B>-x </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is executable. <DT><B>-G </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is owned by the effective group id. <DT><B>-L </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is a symbolic link. <DT><B>-N </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and has been modified since it was last read. <DT><B>-O </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is owned by the effective user id. <DT><B>-S </B><I>file</I> <DD> True if <I>file</I> exists and is a socket. <DT><I>file1</I> <B>-ef</B> <I>file2</I><DD> True if <I>file1</I> and <I>file2</I> refer to the same device and inode numbers. <DT><I>file1</I> -<B>nt</B> <I>file2</I><DD> True if <I>file1</I> is newer (according to modification date) than <I>file2</I>, or if <I>file1</I> exists and file2 does not. <DT><I>file1</I> -<B>ot</B> <I>file2</I><DD> True if <I>file1</I> is older than <I>file2</I>, or if <I>file2</I> exists and <I>file1</I> does not. <DT><B>-o </B><I>optname</I> <DD> True if the shell option <I>optname</I> is enabled. See the list of options under the description of the <B>-o</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin below. <DT><B>-v </B><I>varname</I> <DD> True if the shell variable <I>varname</I> is set (has been assigned a value). <DT><B>-R </B><I>varname</I> <DD> True if the shell variable <I>varname</I> is set and is a name reference. <DT><B>-z </B><I>string</I> <DD> True if the length of <I>string</I> is zero. <DT><I>string</I><DD> <DT><B>-n </B><I>string</I> <DD> True if the length of <I>string</I> is non-zero. <DT><I>string1</I> <B>==</B> <I>string2</I><DD> <DT><I>string1</I> <B>=</B> <I>string2</I><DD> True if the strings are equal. <B>=</B> should be used with the <B>test</B> command for POSIX conformance. When used with the <B>[[</B> command, this performs pattern matching as described above (<B>Compound Commands</B>). <DT><I>string1</I> <B>!=</B> <I>string2</I><DD> True if the strings are not equal. <DT><I>string1</I> <B><</B> <I>string2</I><DD> True if <I>string1</I> sorts before <I>string2</I> lexicographically. <DT><I>string1</I> <B>></B> <I>string2</I><DD> True if <I>string1</I> sorts after <I>string2</I> lexicographically. <DT><I>arg1</I> <B>OP</B> <I>arg2</I> <DD> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OP</B> </FONT> is one of <B>-eq</B>, <B>-ne</B>, <B>-lt</B>, <B>-le</B>, <B>-gt</B>, or <B>-ge</B>. These arithmetic binary operators return true if <I>arg1</I> is equal to, not equal to, less than, less than or equal to, greater than, or greater than or equal to <I>arg2</I>, respectively. <I>Arg1</I> and <I>arg2</I> may be positive or negative integers. When used with the <B>[[</B> command, <I>Arg1</I> and <I>Arg2</I> are evaluated as arithmetic expressions (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ARITHMETIC EVALUATION</B> </FONT> above). </DL> <A NAME="lbBX"> </A> <H3>SIMPLE COMMAND EXPANSION</H3> When a simple command is executed, the shell performs the following expansions, assignments, and redirections, from left to right, in the following order. <DL COMPACT> <DT>1.<DD> The words that the parser has marked as variable assignments (those preceding the command name) and redirections are saved for later processing. <DT>2.<DD> The words that are not variable assignments or redirections are expanded. If any words remain after expansion, the first word is taken to be the name of the command and the remaining words are the arguments. <DT>3.<DD> Redirections are performed as described above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>REDIRECTION</B>. </FONT> <DT>4.<DD> The text after the <B>=</B> in each variable assignment undergoes tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal before being assigned to the variable. </DL> <P> If no command name results, the variable assignments affect the current shell environment. Otherwise, the variables are added to the environment of the executed command and do not affect the current shell environment. If any of the assignments attempts to assign a value to a readonly variable, an error occurs, and the command exits with a non-zero status. <P> If no command name results, redirections are performed, but do not affect the current shell environment. A redirection error causes the command to exit with a non-zero status. <P> If there is a command name left after expansion, execution proceeds as described below. Otherwise, the command exits. If one of the expansions contained a command substitution, the exit status of the command is the exit status of the last command substitution performed. If there were no command substitutions, the command exits with a status of zero. <A NAME="lbBY"> </A> <H3>COMMAND EXECUTION</H3> After a command has been split into words, if it results in a simple command and an optional list of arguments, the following actions are taken. <P> If the command name contains no slashes, the shell attempts to locate it. If there exists a shell function by that name, that function is invoked as described above in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCTIONS</B>. </FONT> If the name does not match a function, the shell searches for it in the list of shell builtins. If a match is found, that builtin is invoked. <P> If the name is neither a shell function nor a builtin, and contains no slashes, <B>bash</B> searches each element of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> for a directory containing an executable file by that name. <B>Bash</B> uses a hash table to remember the full pathnames of executable files (see <B>hash</B> under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). A full search of the directories in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> is performed only if the command is not found in the hash table. If the search is unsuccessful, the shell searches for a defined shell function named <B>command_not_found_handle</B>. If that function exists, it is invoked in a separate execution environment with the original command and the original command's arguments as its arguments, and the function's exit status becomes the exit status of that subshell. If that function is not defined, the shell prints an error message and returns an exit status of 127. <P> If the search is successful, or if the command name contains one or more slashes, the shell executes the named program in a separate execution environment. Argument 0 is set to the name given, and the remaining arguments to the command are set to the arguments given, if any. <P> If this execution fails because the file is not in executable format, and the file is not a directory, it is assumed to be a <I>shell script</I>, a file containing shell commands. A subshell is spawned to execute it. This subshell reinitializes itself, so that the effect is as if a new shell had been invoked to handle the script, with the exception that the locations of commands remembered by the parent (see <B>hash</B> below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B>)</FONT> are retained by the child. <P> If the program is a file beginning with <B>#!</B>, the remainder of the first line specifies an interpreter for the program. The shell executes the specified interpreter on operating systems that do not handle this executable format themselves. The arguments to the interpreter consist of a single optional argument following the interpreter name on the first line of the program, followed by the name of the program, followed by the command arguments, if any. <A NAME="lbBZ"> </A> <H3>COMMAND EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT</H3> The shell has an <I>execution environment</I>, which consists of the following: <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> open files inherited by the shell at invocation, as modified by redirections supplied to the <B>exec</B> builtin <DT>*<DD> the current working directory as set by <B>cd</B>, <B>pushd</B>, or <B>popd</B>, or inherited by the shell at invocation <DT>*<DD> the file creation mode mask as set by <B>umask</B> or inherited from the shell's parent <DT>*<DD> current traps set by <B>trap</B> <DT>*<DD> shell parameters that are set by variable assignment or with <B>set</B> or inherited from the shell's parent in the environment <DT>*<DD> shell functions defined during execution or inherited from the shell's parent in the environment <DT>*<DD> options enabled at invocation (either by default or with command-line arguments) or by <B>set</B> <DT>*<DD> options enabled by <B>shopt</B> <DT>*<DD> shell aliases defined with <B>alias</B> <DT>*<DD> various process IDs, including those of background jobs, the value of <B>$$</B>, and the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PPID</B> </FONT> </DL> <P> When a simple command other than a builtin or shell function is to be executed, it is invoked in a separate execution environment that consists of the following. Unless otherwise noted, the values are inherited from the shell. <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> the shell's open files, plus any modifications and additions specified by redirections to the command <DT>*<DD> the current working directory <DT>*<DD> the file creation mode mask <DT>*<DD> shell variables and functions marked for export, along with variables exported for the command, passed in the environment <DT>*<DD> traps caught by the shell are reset to the values inherited from the shell's parent, and traps ignored by the shell are ignored </DL> <P> A command invoked in this separate environment cannot affect the shell's execution environment. <P> Command substitution, commands grouped with parentheses, and asynchronous commands are invoked in a subshell environment that is a duplicate of the shell environment, except that traps caught by the shell are reset to the values that the shell inherited from its parent at invocation. Builtin commands that are invoked as part of a pipeline are also executed in a subshell environment. Changes made to the subshell environment cannot affect the shell's execution environment. <P> Subshells spawned to execute command substitutions inherit the value of the <B>-e</B> option from the parent shell. When not in <I>posix mode</I>, <B>bash</B> clears the <B>-e</B> option in such subshells. <P> If a command is followed by a <B>&</B> and job control is not active, the default standard input for the command is the empty file <I>/dev/null</I>. Otherwise, the invoked command inherits the file descriptors of the calling shell as modified by redirections. <A NAME="lbCA"> </A> <H3>ENVIRONMENT</H3> When a program is invoked it is given an array of strings called the <I>environment</I>. This is a list of <I>name</I>-<I>value</I> pairs, of the form <I>name</I>=value. <P> The shell provides several ways to manipulate the environment. On invocation, the shell scans its own environment and creates a parameter for each name found, automatically marking it for <I>export</I> to child processes. Executed commands inherit the environment. The <B>export</B> and <B>declare -x</B> commands allow parameters and functions to be added to and deleted from the environment. If the value of a parameter in the environment is modified, the new value becomes part of the environment, replacing the old. The environment inherited by any executed command consists of the shell's initial environment, whose values may be modified in the shell, less any pairs removed by the <B>unset</B> command, plus any additions via the <B>export</B> and <B>declare -x</B> commands. <P> The environment for any <I>simple command</I> or function may be augmented temporarily by prefixing it with parameter assignments, as described above in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PARAMETERS</B>. </FONT> These assignment statements affect only the environment seen by that command. <P> If the <B>-k</B> option is set (see the <B>set</B> builtin command below), then <I>all</I> parameter assignments are placed in the environment for a command, not just those that precede the command name. <P> When <B>bash</B> invokes an external command, the variable <B>_</B> is set to the full filename of the command and passed to that command in its environment. <A NAME="lbCB"> </A> <H3>EXIT STATUS</H3> The exit status of an executed command is the value returned by the <I>waitpid</I> system call or equivalent function. Exit statuses fall between 0 and 255, though, as explained below, the shell may use values above 125 specially. Exit statuses from shell builtins and compound commands are also limited to this range. Under certain circumstances, the shell will use special values to indicate specific failure modes. <P> For the shell's purposes, a command which exits with a zero exit status has succeeded. An exit status of zero indicates success. A non-zero exit status indicates failure. When a command terminates on a fatal signal <I>N</I>, <B>bash</B> uses the value of 128+<I>N</I> as the exit status. <P> If a command is not found, the child process created to execute it returns a status of 127. If a command is found but is not executable, the return status is 126. <P> If a command fails because of an error during expansion or redirection, the exit status is greater than zero. <P> Shell builtin commands return a status of 0 (<I>true</I>) if successful, and non-zero (<I>false</I>) if an error occurs while they execute. All builtins return an exit status of 2 to indicate incorrect usage, generally invalid options or missing arguments. <P> <B>Bash</B> itself returns the exit status of the last command executed, unless a syntax error occurs, in which case it exits with a non-zero value. See also the <B>exit</B> builtin command below. <A NAME="lbCC"> </A> <H3>SIGNALS</H3> When <B>bash</B> is interactive, in the absence of any traps, it ignores <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGTERM</B> </FONT> (so that <B>kill 0</B> does not kill an interactive shell), and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGINT</B> </FONT> is caught and handled (so that the <B>wait</B> builtin is interruptible). In all cases, <B>bash</B> ignores <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGQUIT</B>. </FONT> If job control is in effect, <B>bash</B> ignores <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGTTIN</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGTTOU</B>, </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGTSTP</B>. </FONT> <P> Non-builtin commands run by <B>bash</B> have signal handlers set to the values inherited by the shell from its parent. When job control is not in effect, asynchronous commands ignore <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGINT</B> </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGQUIT</B> </FONT> in addition to these inherited handlers. Commands run as a result of command substitution ignore the keyboard-generated job control signals <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGTTIN</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGTTOU</B>, </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGTSTP</B>. </FONT> <P> The shell exits by default upon receipt of a <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGHUP</B>. </FONT> Before exiting, an interactive shell resends the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGHUP</B> </FONT> to all jobs, running or stopped. Stopped jobs are sent <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGCONT</B> </FONT> to ensure that they receive the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGHUP</B>. </FONT> To prevent the shell from sending the signal to a particular job, it should be removed from the jobs table with the <B>disown</B> builtin (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below) or marked to not receive <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGHUP</B> </FONT> using <B>disown -h</B>. <P> If the <B>huponexit</B> shell option has been set with <B>shopt</B>, <B>bash</B> sends a <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGHUP</B> </FONT> to all jobs when an interactive login shell exits. <P> If <B>bash</B> is waiting for a command to complete and receives a signal for which a trap has been set, the trap will not be executed until the command completes. When <B>bash</B> is waiting for an asynchronous command via the <B>wait</B> builtin, the reception of a signal for which a trap has been set will cause the <B>wait</B> builtin to return immediately with an exit status greater than 128, immediately after which the trap is executed. <A NAME="lbCD"> </A> <H3>JOB CONTROL</H3> <I>Job control</I> refers to the ability to selectively stop (<I>suspend</I>) the execution of processes and continue (<I>resume</I>) their execution at a later point. A user typically employs this facility via an interactive interface supplied jointly by the operating system kernel's terminal driver and <B>bash</B>. <P> The shell associates a <I>job</I> with each pipeline. It keeps a table of currently executing jobs, which may be listed with the <B>jobs</B> command. When <B>bash</B> starts a job asynchronously (in the <I>background</I>), it prints a line that looks like: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> [1] 25647 </DL> <P> indicating that this job is job number 1 and that the process ID of the last process in the pipeline associated with this job is 25647. All of the processes in a single pipeline are members of the same job. <B>Bash</B> uses the <I>job</I> abstraction as the basis for job control. <P> To facilitate the implementation of the user interface to job control, the operating system maintains the notion of a <I>current terminal process group ID</I>. Members of this process group (processes whose process group ID is equal to the current terminal process group ID) receive keyboard-generated signals such as <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGINT</B>. </FONT> These processes are said to be in the <I>foreground</I>. <I>Background</I> processes are those whose process group ID differs from the terminal's; such processes are immune to keyboard-generated signals. Only foreground processes are allowed to read from or, if the user so specifies with <TT>stty tostop</TT>, write to the terminal. Background processes which attempt to read from (write to when <TT>stty tostop</TT> is in effect) the terminal are sent a <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGTTIN (SIGTTOU)</B> </FONT> signal by the kernel's terminal driver, which, unless caught, suspends the process. <P> If the operating system on which <B>bash</B> is running supports job control, <B>bash</B> contains facilities to use it. Typing the <I>suspend</I> character (typically <B>^Z</B>, Control-Z) while a process is running causes that process to be stopped and returns control to <B>bash</B>. Typing the <I>delayed suspend</I> character (typically <B>^Y</B>, Control-Y) causes the process to be stopped when it attempts to read input from the terminal, and control to be returned to <B>bash</B>. The user may then manipulate the state of this job, using the <B>bg</B> command to continue it in the background, the <B>fg</B> command to continue it in the foreground, or the <B>kill</B> command to kill it. A <B>^Z</B> takes effect immediately, and has the additional side effect of causing pending output and typeahead to be discarded. <P> There are a number of ways to refer to a job in the shell. The character <B>%</B> introduces a job specification (<I>jobspec</I>). Job number <I>n</I> may be referred to as <B>%n</B>. A job may also be referred to using a prefix of the name used to start it, or using a substring that appears in its command line. For example, <B>%ce</B> refers to a stopped job whose command name begins with <B>ce</B>. If a prefix matches more than one job, <B>bash</B> reports an error. Using <B>%?ce</B>, on the other hand, refers to any job containing the string <B>ce</B> in its command line. If the substring matches more than one job, <B>bash</B> reports an error. The symbols <B>%%</B> and <B>%+</B> refer to the shell's notion of the <I>current job</I>, which is the last job stopped while it was in the foreground or started in the background. The <I>previous job</I> may be referenced using <B>%-</B>. If there is only a single job, <B>%+</B> and <B>%-</B> can both be used to refer to that job. In output pertaining to jobs (e.g., the output of the <B>jobs</B> command), the current job is always flagged with a <B>+</B>, and the previous job with a <B>-</B>. A single % (with no accompanying job specification) also refers to the current job. <P> Simply naming a job can be used to bring it into the foreground: <B>%1</B> is a synonym for <B>``fg %1''</B>, bringing job 1 from the background into the foreground. Similarly, <B>``%1 &''</B> resumes job 1 in the background, equivalent to <B>``bg %1''</B>. <P> The shell learns immediately whenever a job changes state. Normally, <B>bash</B> waits until it is about to print a prompt before reporting changes in a job's status so as to not interrupt any other output. If the <B>-b</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin command is enabled, <B>bash</B> reports such changes immediately. Any trap on <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGCHLD</B> </FONT> is executed for each child that exits. <P> If an attempt to exit <B>bash</B> is made while jobs are stopped (or, if the <B>checkjobs</B> shell option has been enabled using the <B>shopt</B> builtin, running), the shell prints a warning message, and, if the <B>checkjobs</B> option is enabled, lists the jobs and their statuses. The <B>jobs</B> command may then be used to inspect their status. If a second attempt to exit is made without an intervening command, the shell does not print another warning, and any stopped jobs are terminated. <P> When the shell is waiting for a job or process using the <B>wait</B> builtin, and job control is enabled, <B>wait</B> will return when the job changes state. The <B>-f</B> option causes <B>wait</B> to wait until the job or process terminates before returning. <A NAME="lbCE"> </A> <H3>PROMPTING</H3> When executing interactively, <B>bash</B> displays the primary prompt <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS1</B> </FONT> when it is ready to read a command, and the secondary prompt <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS2</B> </FONT> when it needs more input to complete a command. <B>Bash</B> displays <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS0</B> </FONT> after it reads a command but before executing it. <B>Bash</B> displays <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS4</B> </FONT> as described above before tracing each command when the <B>-x</B> option is enabled. <B>Bash</B> allows these prompt strings to be customized by inserting a number of backslash-escaped special characters that are decoded as follows: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>\a</B> <DD> an ASCII bell character (07) <DT><B>\d</B> <DD> the date in "Weekday Month Date" format (e.g., "Tue May 26") <DT><B>\D{</B><I>format</I>} <DD> the <I>format</I> is passed to <I>strftime</I>(3) and the result is inserted into the prompt string; an empty <I>format</I> results in a locale-specific time representation. The braces are required <DT><B>\e</B> <DD> an ASCII escape character (033) <DT><B>\h</B> <DD> the hostname up to the first `.' <DT><B>\H</B> <DD> the hostname <DT><B>\j</B> <DD> the number of jobs currently managed by the shell <DT><B>\l</B> <DD> the basename of the shell's terminal device name <DT><B>\n</B> <DD> newline <DT><B>\r</B> <DD> carriage return <DT><B>\s</B> <DD> the name of the shell, the basename of <B>$0</B> (the portion following the final slash) <DT><B>\t</B> <DD> the current time in 24-hour HH:MM:SS format <DT><B>\T</B> <DD> the current time in 12-hour HH:MM:SS format <DT><B>\@</B> <DD> the current time in 12-hour am/pm format <DT><B>\A</B> <DD> the current time in 24-hour HH:MM format <DT><B>\u</B> <DD> the username of the current user <DT><B>\v</B> <DD> the version of <B>bash</B> (e.g., 2.00) <DT><B>\V</B> <DD> the release of <B>bash</B>, version + patch level (e.g., 2.00.0) <DT><B>\w</B> <DD> the current working directory, with <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$HOME</B> </FONT> abbreviated with a tilde (uses the value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PROMPT_DIRTRIM</B> </FONT> variable) <DT><B>\W</B> <DD> the basename of the current working directory, with <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$HOME</B> </FONT> abbreviated with a tilde <DT><B>\!</B> <DD> the history number of this command <DT><B>\#</B> <DD> the command number of this command <DT><B>\$</B> <DD> if the effective UID is 0, a <B>#</B>, otherwise a <B>$</B> <DT><B>\</B><I>nnn</I> <DD> the character corresponding to the octal number <I>nnn</I> <DT><B>\\</B> <DD> a backslash <DT><B>\[</B> <DD> begin a sequence of non-printing characters, which could be used to embed a terminal control sequence into the prompt <DT><B>\]</B> <DD> end a sequence of non-printing characters </DL></DL> <P> The command number and the history number are usually different: the history number of a command is its position in the history list, which may include commands restored from the history file (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY</B> </FONT> below), while the command number is the position in the sequence of commands executed during the current shell session. After the string is decoded, it is expanded via parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal, subject to the value of the <B>promptvars</B> shell option (see the description of the <B>shopt</B> command under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). This can have unwanted side effects if escaped portions of the string appear within command substitution or contain characters special to word expansion. <A NAME="lbCF"> </A> <H3>READLINE</H3> This is the library that handles reading input when using an interactive shell, unless the <B>--noediting</B> option is given at shell invocation. Line editing is also used when using the <B>-e</B> option to the <B>read</B> builtin. By default, the line editing commands are similar to those of Emacs. A vi-style line editing interface is also available. Line editing can be enabled at any time using the <B>-o emacs</B> or <B>-o vi</B> options to the <B>set</B> builtin (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). To turn off line editing after the shell is running, use the <B>+o emacs</B> or <B>+o vi</B> options to the <B>set</B> builtin. <A NAME="lbCG"> </A> <H4>Readline Notation</H4> In this section, the Emacs-style notation is used to denote keystrokes. Control keys are denoted by C-<I>key</I>, e.g., C-n means Control-N. Similarly, <I>meta</I> keys are denoted by M-<I>key</I>, so M-x means Meta-X. (On keyboards without a <I>meta</I> key, M-<I>x</I> means ESC <I>x</I>, i.e., press the Escape key then the <I>x</I> key. This makes ESC the <I>meta prefix</I>. The combination M-C-<I>x</I> means ESC-Control-<I>x</I>, or press the Escape key then hold the Control key while pressing the <I>x</I> key.) <P> Readline commands may be given numeric <I>arguments</I>, which normally act as a repeat count. Sometimes, however, it is the sign of the argument that is significant. Passing a negative argument to a command that acts in the forward direction (e.g., <B>kill-line</B>) causes that command to act in a backward direction. Commands whose behavior with arguments deviates from this are noted below. <P> When a command is described as <I>killing</I> text, the text deleted is saved for possible future retrieval (<I>yanking</I>). The killed text is saved in a <I>kill ring</I>. Consecutive kills cause the text to be accumulated into one unit, which can be yanked all at once. Commands which do not kill text separate the chunks of text on the kill ring. <A NAME="lbCH"> </A> <H4>Readline Initialization</H4> Readline is customized by putting commands in an initialization file (the <I>inputrc</I> file). The name of this file is taken from the value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>INPUTRC</B> </FONT> variable. If that variable is unset, the default is <A HREF="file:~/.inputrc"><I>~/.inputrc</I></A>. If that file does not exist or cannot be read, the ultimate default is <A HREF="file:/etc/inputrc"><I>/etc/inputrc</I></A>. When a program which uses the readline library starts up, the initialization file is read, and the key bindings and variables are set. There are only a few basic constructs allowed in the readline initialization file. Blank lines are ignored. Lines beginning with a <B>#</B> are comments. Lines beginning with a <B>$</B> indicate conditional constructs. Other lines denote key bindings and variable settings. <P> The default key-bindings may be changed with an <I>inputrc</I> file. Other programs that use this library may add their own commands and bindings. <P> For example, placing <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> M-Control-u: universal-argument </DL> or <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> C-Meta-u: universal-argument </DL> into the <I>inputrc</I> would make M-C-u execute the readline command <I>universal-argument</I>. <P> The following symbolic character names are recognized: <I>RUBOUT</I>, <I>DEL</I>, <I>ESC</I>, <I>LFD</I>, <I>NEWLINE</I>, <I>RET</I>, <I>RETURN</I>, <I>SPC</I>, <I>SPACE</I>, and <I>TAB</I>. <P> In addition to command names, readline allows keys to be bound to a string that is inserted when the key is pressed (a <I>macro</I>). <A NAME="lbCI"> </A> <H4>Readline Key Bindings</H4> The syntax for controlling key bindings in the <I>inputrc</I> file is simple. All that is required is the name of the command or the text of a macro and a key sequence to which it should be bound. The name may be specified in one of two ways: as a symbolic key name, possibly with <I>Meta-</I> or <I>Control-</I> prefixes, or as a key sequence. <P> When using the form <B>keyname</B>:<I>function-name</I> or <I>macro</I>, <I>keyname</I> is the name of a key spelled out in English. For example: <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> Control-u: universal-argument <BR> Meta-Rubout: backward-kill-word <BR> Control-o: "> output" </DL> <P> In the above example, <I>C-u</I> is bound to the function <B>universal-argument</B>, <I>M-DEL</I> is bound to the function <B>backward-kill-word</B>, and <I>C-o</I> is bound to run the macro expressed on the right hand side (that is, to insert the text <TT>> output</TT> into the line). <P> In the second form, <B>"keyseq"</B>:<I>function-name</I> or <I>macro</I>, <B>keyseq</B> differs from <B>keyname</B> above in that strings denoting an entire key sequence may be specified by placing the sequence within double quotes. Some GNU Emacs style key escapes can be used, as in the following example, but the symbolic character names are not recognized. <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> "\C-u": universal-argument <BR> "\C-x\C-r": re-read-init-file <BR> "\e[11~": "Function Key 1" </DL> <P> In this example, <I>C-u</I> is again bound to the function <B>universal-argument</B>. <I>C-x C-r</I> is bound to the function <B>re-read-init-file</B>, and <I>ESC [ 1 1 ~</I> is bound to insert the text <TT>Function Key 1</TT>. <P> The full set of GNU Emacs style escape sequences is <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>\C-</B> <DD> control prefix <DT><B>\M-</B> <DD> meta prefix <DT><B>\e</B> <DD> an escape character <DT><B>\\</B> <DD> backslash <DT><B>\</B> <DD> literal " <DT><B>\aq</B> <DD> literal aq </DL></DL> <P> In addition to the GNU Emacs style escape sequences, a second set of backslash escapes is available: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>\a</B> <DD> alert (bell) <DT><B>\b</B> <DD> backspace <DT><B>\d</B> <DD> delete <DT><B>\f</B> <DD> form feed <DT><B>\n</B> <DD> newline <DT><B>\r</B> <DD> carriage return <DT><B>\t</B> <DD> horizontal tab <DT><B>\v</B> <DD> vertical tab <DT><B>\</B><I>nnn</I> <DD> the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value <I>nnn</I> (one to three digits) <DT><B>\x</B><I>HH</I> <DD> the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value <I>HH</I> (one or two hex digits) </DL></DL> <P> When entering the text of a macro, single or double quotes must be used to indicate a macro definition. Unquoted text is assumed to be a function name. In the macro body, the backslash escapes described above are expanded. Backslash will quote any other character in the macro text, including " and aq. <P> <B>Bash</B> allows the current readline key bindings to be displayed or modified with the <B>bind</B> builtin command. The editing mode may be switched during interactive use by using the <B>-o</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <A NAME="lbCJ"> </A> <H4>Readline Variables</H4> Readline has variables that can be used to further customize its behavior. A variable may be set in the <I>inputrc</I> file with a statement of the form <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <P> <B>set</B> <I>variable-name</I> <I>value</I> </DL> or using the <B>bind</B> builtin command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). <P> Except where noted, readline variables can take the values <B>On</B> or <B>Off</B> (without regard to case). Unrecognized variable names are ignored. When a variable value is read, empty or null values, "on" (case-insensitive), and "1" are equivalent to <B>On</B>. All other values are equivalent to <B>Off</B>. The variables and their default values are: <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>bell-style (audible)</B> <DD> Controls what happens when readline wants to ring the terminal bell. If set to <B>none</B>, readline never rings the bell. If set to <B>visible</B>, readline uses a visible bell if one is available. If set to <B>audible</B>, readline attempts to ring the terminal's bell. <DT><B>bind-tty-special-chars (On)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline attempts to bind the control characters treated specially by the kernel's terminal driver to their readline equivalents. <DT><B>blink-matching-paren (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline attempts to briefly move the cursor to an opening parenthesis when a closing parenthesis is inserted. <DT><B>colored-completion-prefix (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, when listing completions, readline displays the common prefix of the set of possible completions using a different color. The color definitions are taken from the value of the <B>LS_COLORS</B> environment variable. <DT><B>colored-stats (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline displays possible completions using different colors to indicate their file type. The color definitions are taken from the value of the <B>LS_COLORS</B> environment variable. <DT><B>comment-begin (``#'')</B> <DD> The string that is inserted when the readline <B>insert-comment</B> command is executed. This command is bound to <B>M-#</B> in emacs mode and to <B>#</B> in vi command mode. <DT><B>completion-display-width (-1)</B> <DD> The number of screen columns used to display possible matches when performing completion. The value is ignored if it is less than 0 or greater than the terminal screen width. A value of 0 will cause matches to be displayed one per line. The default value is -1. <DT><B>completion-ignore-case (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline performs filename matching and completion in a case-insensitive fashion. <DT><B>completion-map-case (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, and <B>completion-ignore-case</B> is enabled, readline treats hyphens (<I>-</I>) and underscores (<I>_</I>) as equivalent when performing case-insensitive filename matching and completion. <DT><B>completion-prefix-display-length (0)</B> <DD> The length in characters of the common prefix of a list of possible completions that is displayed without modification. When set to a value greater than zero, common prefixes longer than this value are replaced with an ellipsis when displaying possible completions. <DT><B>completion-query-items (100)</B> <DD> This determines when the user is queried about viewing the number of possible completions generated by the <B>possible-completions</B> command. It may be set to any integer value greater than or equal to zero. If the number of possible completions is greater than or equal to the value of this variable, readline will ask whether or not the user wishes to view them; otherwise they are simply listed on the terminal. <DT><B>convert-meta (On)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline will convert characters with the eighth bit set to an ASCII key sequence by stripping the eighth bit and prefixing an escape character (in effect, using escape as the <I>meta prefix</I>). The default is <I>On</I>, but readline will set it to <I>Off</I> if the locale contains eight-bit characters. <DT><B>disable-completion (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline will inhibit word completion. Completion characters will be inserted into the line as if they had been mapped to <B>self-insert</B>. <DT><B>echo-control-characters (On)</B> <DD> When set to <B>On</B>, on operating systems that indicate they support it, readline echoes a character corresponding to a signal generated from the keyboard. <DT><B>editing-mode (emacs)</B> <DD> Controls whether readline begins with a set of key bindings similar to <I>Emacs</I> or <I>vi</I>. <B>editing-mode</B> can be set to either <B>emacs</B> or <B>vi</B>. <DT><B>emacs-mode-string (@)</B> <DD> If the <I>show-mode-in-prompt</I> variable is enabled, this string is displayed immediately before the last line of the primary prompt when emacs editing mode is active. The value is expanded like a key binding, so the standard set of meta- and control prefixes and backslash escape sequences is available. Use the \1 and \2 escapes to begin and end sequences of non-printing characters, which can be used to embed a terminal control sequence into the mode string. <DT><B>enable-bracketed-paste (On)</B> <DD> When set to <B>On</B>, readline will configure the terminal in a way that will enable it to insert each paste into the editing buffer as a single string of characters, instead of treating each character as if it had been read from the keyboard. This can prevent pasted characters from being interpreted as editing commands. <DT><B>enable-keypad (Off)</B> <DD> When set to <B>On</B>, readline will try to enable the application keypad when it is called. Some systems need this to enable the arrow keys. <DT><B>enable-meta-key (On)</B> <DD> When set to <B>On</B>, readline will try to enable any meta modifier key the terminal claims to support when it is called. On many terminals, the meta key is used to send eight-bit characters. <DT><B>expand-tilde (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, tilde expansion is performed when readline attempts word completion. <DT><B>history-preserve-point (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, the history code attempts to place point at the same location on each history line retrieved with <B>previous-history</B> or <B>next-history</B>. <DT><B>history-size (unset)</B> <DD> Set the maximum number of history entries saved in the history list. If set to zero, any existing history entries are deleted and no new entries are saved. If set to a value less than zero, the number of history entries is not limited. By default, the number of history entries is set to the value of the <B>HISTSIZE</B> shell variable. If an attempt is made to set <I>history-size</I> to a non-numeric value, the maximum number of history entries will be set to 500. <DT><B>horizontal-scroll-mode (Off)</B> <DD> When set to <B>On</B>, makes readline use a single line for display, scrolling the input horizontally on a single screen line when it becomes longer than the screen width rather than wrapping to a new line. This setting is automatically enabled for terminals of height 1. <DT><B>input-meta (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline will enable eight-bit input (that is, it will not strip the eighth bit from the characters it reads), regardless of what the terminal claims it can support. The name <B>meta-flag</B> is a synonym for this variable. The default is <I>Off</I>, but readline will set it to <I>On</I> if the locale contains eight-bit characters. <DT><B>isearch-terminators (``C-[C-J'')</B> <DD> The string of characters that should terminate an incremental search without subsequently executing the character as a command. If this variable has not been given a value, the characters <I>ESC</I> and <I>C-J</I> will terminate an incremental search. <DT><B>keymap (emacs)</B> <DD> Set the current readline keymap. The set of valid keymap names is <I>emacs, emacs-standard, emacs-meta, emacs-ctlx, vi, vi-command</I>, and <I>vi-insert</I>. <I>vi</I> is equivalent to <I>vi-command</I>; <I>emacs</I> is equivalent to <I>emacs-standard</I>. The default value is <I>emacs</I>; the value of <B>editing-mode</B> also affects the default keymap. <DT><B>keyseq-timeout (500)</B> <DD> Specifies the duration <I>readline</I> will wait for a character when reading an ambiguous key sequence (one that can form a complete key sequence using the input read so far, or can take additional input to complete a longer key sequence). If no input is received within the timeout, <I>readline</I> will use the shorter but complete key sequence. The value is specified in milliseconds, so a value of 1000 means that <I>readline</I> will wait one second for additional input. If this variable is set to a value less than or equal to zero, or to a non-numeric value, <I>readline</I> will wait until another key is pressed to decide which key sequence to complete. <DT><B>mark-directories (On)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, completed directory names have a slash appended. <DT><B>mark-modified-lines (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, history lines that have been modified are displayed with a preceding asterisk (<B>*</B>). <DT><B>mark-symlinked-directories (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, completed names which are symbolic links to directories have a slash appended (subject to the value of <B>mark-directories</B>). <DT><B>match-hidden-files (On)</B> <DD> This variable, when set to <B>On</B>, causes readline to match files whose names begin with a `.' (hidden files) when performing filename completion. If set to <B>Off</B>, the leading `.' must be supplied by the user in the filename to be completed. <DT><B>menu-complete-display-prefix (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, menu completion displays the common prefix of the list of possible completions (which may be empty) before cycling through the list. <DT><B>output-meta (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline will display characters with the eighth bit set directly rather than as a meta-prefixed escape sequence. The default is <I>Off</I>, but readline will set it to <I>On</I> if the locale contains eight-bit characters. <DT><B>page-completions (On)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline uses an internal <I>more</I>-like pager to display a screenful of possible completions at a time. <DT><B>print-completions-horizontally (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline will display completions with matches sorted horizontally in alphabetical order, rather than down the screen. <DT><B>revert-all-at-newline (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, readline will undo all changes to history lines before returning when <B>accept-line</B> is executed. By default, history lines may be modified and retain individual undo lists across calls to <B>readline</B>. <DT><B>show-all-if-ambiguous (Off)</B> <DD> This alters the default behavior of the completion functions. If set to <B>On</B>, words which have more than one possible completion cause the matches to be listed immediately instead of ringing the bell. <DT><B>show-all-if-unmodified (Off)</B> <DD> This alters the default behavior of the completion functions in a fashion similar to <B>show-all-if-ambiguous</B>. If set to <B>On</B>, words which have more than one possible completion without any possible partial completion (the possible completions don't share a common prefix) cause the matches to be listed immediately instead of ringing the bell. <DT><B>show-mode-in-prompt (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, add a string to the beginning of the prompt indicating the editing mode: emacs, vi command, or vi insertion. The mode strings are user-settable (e.g., <I>emacs-mode-string</I>). <DT><B>skip-completed-text (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, this alters the default completion behavior when inserting a single match into the line. It's only active when performing completion in the middle of a word. If enabled, readline does not insert characters from the completion that match characters after point in the word being completed, so portions of the word following the cursor are not duplicated. <DT><B>vi-cmd-mode-string ((cmd))</B> <DD> If the <I>show-mode-in-prompt</I> variable is enabled, this string is displayed immediately before the last line of the primary prompt when vi editing mode is active and in command mode. The value is expanded like a key binding, so the standard set of meta- and control prefixes and backslash escape sequences is available. Use the \1 and \2 escapes to begin and end sequences of non-printing characters, which can be used to embed a terminal control sequence into the mode string. <DT><B>vi-ins-mode-string ((ins))</B> <DD> If the <I>show-mode-in-prompt</I> variable is enabled, this string is displayed immediately before the last line of the primary prompt when vi editing mode is active and in insertion mode. The value is expanded like a key binding, so the standard set of meta- and control prefixes and backslash escape sequences is available. Use the \1 and \2 escapes to begin and end sequences of non-printing characters, which can be used to embed a terminal control sequence into the mode string. <DT><B>visible-stats (Off)</B> <DD> If set to <B>On</B>, a character denoting a file's type as reported by <I>stat</I>(2) is appended to the filename when listing possible completions. </DL> <A NAME="lbCK"> </A> <H4>Readline Conditional Constructs</H4> Readline implements a facility similar in spirit to the conditional compilation features of the C preprocessor which allows key bindings and variable settings to be performed as the result of tests. There are four parser directives used. <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>$if</B><DD> The <B>$if</B> construct allows bindings to be made based on the editing mode, the terminal being used, or the application using readline. The text of the test, after any comparison operator, <BR> extends to the end of the line; unless otherwise noted, no characters are required to isolate it. <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>mode</B><DD> The <B>mode=</B> form of the <B>$if</B> directive is used to test whether readline is in emacs or vi mode. This may be used in conjunction with the <B>set keymap</B> command, for instance, to set bindings in the <I>emacs-standard</I> and <I>emacs-ctlx</I> keymaps only if readline is starting out in emacs mode. <DT><B>term</B><DD> The <B>term=</B> form may be used to include terminal-specific key bindings, perhaps to bind the key sequences output by the terminal's function keys. The word on the right side of the <B>=</B> is tested against both the full name of the terminal and the portion of the terminal name before the first <B>-</B>. This allows <I>sun</I> to match both <I>sun</I> and <I>sun-cmd</I>, for instance. <DT><B>version</B><DD> The <B>version</B> test may be used to perform comparisons against specific readline versions. The <B>version</B> expands to the current readline version. The set of comparison operators includes <B>=</B>, (and <B>==</B>), <B>!=</B>, <B><=</B>, <B>>=</B>, <B><</B>, and <B>></B>. The version number supplied on the right side of the operator consists of a major version number, an optional decimal point, and an optional minor version (e.g., <B>7.1</B>). If the minor version is omitted, it is assumed to be <B>0</B>. The operator may be separated from the string <B>version</B> and from the version number argument by whitespace. <DT><B>application</B><DD> The <B>application</B> construct is used to include application-specific settings. Each program using the readline library sets the <I>application name</I>, and an initialization file can test for a particular value. This could be used to bind key sequences to functions useful for a specific program. For instance, the following command adds a key sequence that quotes the current or previous word in <B>bash</B>: <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <PRE> <B>$if</B> Bash # Quote the current or previous word "\C-xq": "\eb\"\ef\"" <B>$endif</B> </PRE> </DL> <DT><I>variable</I><DD> The <I>variable</I> construct provides simple equality tests for readline variables and values. The permitted comparison operators are <I>=</I>, <I>==</I>, and <I>!=</I>. The variable name must be separated from the comparison operator by whitespace; the operator may be separated from the value on the right hand side by whitespace. Both string and boolean variables may be tested. Boolean variables must be tested against the values <I>on</I> and <I>off</I>. </DL></DL> <DT><B>$endif</B><DD> This command, as seen in the previous example, terminates an <B>$if</B> command. <DT><B>$else</B><DD> Commands in this branch of the <B>$if</B> directive are executed if the test fails. <DT><B>$include</B><DD> This directive takes a single filename as an argument and reads commands and bindings from that file. For example, the following directive would read <A HREF="file:/etc/inputrc"><I>/etc/inputrc</I></A>: <P> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <PRE> <B>$include</B> <A HREF="file:/etc/inputrc"><I>/etc/inputrc</I></A> </PRE> </DL> </DL> <A NAME="lbCL"> </A> <H4>Searching</H4> Readline provides commands for searching through the command history (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY</B> </FONT> below) for lines containing a specified string. There are two search modes: <I>incremental</I> and <I>non-incremental</I>. <P> Incremental searches begin before the user has finished typing the search string. As each character of the search string is typed, readline displays the next entry from the history matching the string typed so far. An incremental search requires only as many characters as needed to find the desired history entry. The characters present in the value of the <B>isearch-terminators</B> variable are used to terminate an incremental search. If that variable has not been assigned a value the Escape and Control-J characters will terminate an incremental search. Control-G will abort an incremental search and restore the original line. When the search is terminated, the history entry containing the search string becomes the current line. <P> To find other matching entries in the history list, type Control-S or Control-R as appropriate. This will search backward or forward in the history for the next entry matching the search string typed so far. Any other key sequence bound to a readline command will terminate the search and execute that command. For instance, a <I>newline</I> will terminate the search and accept the line, thereby executing the command from the history list. <P> Readline remembers the last incremental search string. If two Control-Rs are typed without any intervening characters defining a new search string, any remembered search string is used. <P> Non-incremental searches read the entire search string before starting to search for matching history lines. The search string may be typed by the user or be part of the contents of the current line. <A NAME="lbCM"> </A> <H4>Readline Command Names</H4> The following is a list of the names of the commands and the default key sequences to which they are bound. Command names without an accompanying key sequence are unbound by default. In the following descriptions, <I>point</I> refers to the current cursor position, and <I>mark</I> refers to a cursor position saved by the <B>set-mark</B> command. The text between the point and mark is referred to as the <I>region</I>. <A NAME="lbCN"> </A> <H4>Commands for Moving</H4> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>beginning-of-line (C-a)</B> <DD> Move to the start of the current line. <DT><B>end-of-line (C-e)</B> <DD> Move to the end of the line. <DT><B>forward-char (C-f)</B> <DD> Move forward a character. <DT><B>backward-char (C-b)</B> <DD> Move back a character. <DT><B>forward-word (M-f)</B> <DD> Move forward to the end of the next word. Words are composed of alphanumeric characters (letters and digits). <DT><B>backward-word (M-b)</B> <DD> Move back to the start of the current or previous word. Words are composed of alphanumeric characters (letters and digits). <DT><B>shell-forward-word</B> <DD> Move forward to the end of the next word. Words are delimited by non-quoted shell metacharacters. <DT><B>shell-backward-word</B> <DD> Move back to the start of the current or previous word. Words are delimited by non-quoted shell metacharacters. <DT><B>previous-screen-line</B> <DD> Attempt to move point to the same physical screen column on the previous physical screen line. This will not have the desired effect if the current Readline line does not take up more than one physical line or if point is not greater than the length of the prompt plus the screen width. <DT><B>next-screen-line</B> <DD> Attempt to move point to the same physical screen column on the next physical screen line. This will not have the desired effect if the current Readline line does not take up more than one physical line or if the length of the current Readline line is not greater than the length of the prompt plus the screen width. <DT><B>clear-display (M-C-l)</B> <DD> Clear the screen and, if possible, the terminal's scrollback buffer, then redraw the current line, leaving the current line at the top of the screen. <DT><B>clear-screen (C-l)</B> <DD> Clear the screen, then redraw the current line, leaving the current line at the top of the screen. With an argument, refresh the current line without clearing the screen. <DT><B>redraw-current-line</B> <DD> Refresh the current line. </DL> <A NAME="lbCO"> </A> <H4>Commands for Manipulating the History</H4> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>accept-line (Newline, Return)</B> <DD> Accept the line regardless of where the cursor is. If this line is non-empty, add it to the history list according to the state of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTCONTROL</B> </FONT> variable. If the line is a modified history line, then restore the history line to its original state. <DT><B>previous-history (C-p)</B> <DD> Fetch the previous command from the history list, moving back in the list. <DT><B>next-history (C-n)</B> <DD> Fetch the next command from the history list, moving forward in the list. <DT><B>beginning-of-history (M-<)</B> <DD> Move to the first line in the history. <DT><B>end-of-history (M->)</B> <DD> Move to the end of the input history, i.e., the line currently being entered. <DT><B>reverse-search-history (C-r)</B> <DD> Search backward starting at the current line and moving `up' through the history as necessary. This is an incremental search. <DT><B>forward-search-history (C-s)</B> <DD> Search forward starting at the current line and moving `down' through the history as necessary. This is an incremental search. <DT><B>non-incremental-reverse-search-history (M-p)</B> <DD> Search backward through the history starting at the current line using a non-incremental search for a string supplied by the user. <DT><B>non-incremental-forward-search-history (M-n)</B> <DD> Search forward through the history using a non-incremental search for a string supplied by the user. <DT><B>history-search-forward</B> <DD> Search forward through the history for the string of characters between the start of the current line and the point. This is a non-incremental search. <DT><B>history-search-backward</B> <DD> Search backward through the history for the string of characters between the start of the current line and the point. This is a non-incremental search. <DT><B>history-substring-search-backward</B> <DD> Search backward through the history for the string of characters between the start of the current line and the current cursor position (the <I>point</I>). The search string may match anywhere in a history line. This is a non-incremental search. <DT><B>history-substring-search-forward</B> <DD> Search forward through the history for the string of characters between the start of the current line and the point. The search string may match anywhere in a history line. This is a non-incremental search. <DT><B>yank-nth-arg (M-C-y)</B> <DD> Insert the first argument to the previous command (usually the second word on the previous line) at point. With an argument <I>n</I>, insert the <I>n</I>th word from the previous command (the words in the previous command begin with word 0). A negative argument inserts the <I>n</I>th word from the end of the previous command. Once the argument <I>n</I> is computed, the argument is extracted as if the "!<I>n</I>" history expansion had been specified. <DT><B>yank-last-arg (M-., M-_)</B> <DD> Insert the last argument to the previous command (the last word of the previous history entry). With a numeric argument, behave exactly like <B>yank-nth-arg</B>. Successive calls to <B>yank-last-arg</B> move back through the history list, inserting the last word (or the word specified by the argument to the first call) of each line in turn. Any numeric argument supplied to these successive calls determines the direction to move through the history. A negative argument switches the direction through the history (back or forward). The history expansion facilities are used to extract the last word, as if the "!$" history expansion had been specified. <DT><B>shell-expand-line (M-C-e)</B> <DD> Expand the line as the shell does. This performs alias and history expansion as well as all of the shell word expansions. See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY EXPANSION</B> </FONT> below for a description of history expansion. <DT><B>history-expand-line (M-^)</B> <DD> Perform history expansion on the current line. See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY EXPANSION</B> </FONT> below for a description of history expansion. <DT><B>magic-space</B> <DD> Perform history expansion on the current line and insert a space. See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY EXPANSION</B> </FONT> below for a description of history expansion. <DT><B>alias-expand-line</B> <DD> Perform alias expansion on the current line. See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ALIASES</B> </FONT> above for a description of alias expansion. <DT><B>history-and-alias-expand-line</B> <DD> Perform history and alias expansion on the current line. <DT><B>insert-last-argument (M-., M-_)</B> <DD> A synonym for <B>yank-last-arg</B>. <DT><B>operate-and-get-next (C-o)</B> <DD> Accept the current line for execution and fetch the next line relative to the current line from the history for editing. A numeric argument, if supplied, specifies the history entry to use instead of the current line. <DT><B>edit-and-execute-command (C-x C-e)</B> <DD> Invoke an editor on the current command line, and execute the result as shell commands. <B>Bash</B> attempts to invoke <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$VISUAL</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$EDITOR</B>, </FONT> and <I>emacs</I> as the editor, in that order. </DL> <A NAME="lbCP"> </A> <H4>Commands for Changing Text</H4> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B></B><I>end-of-file</I> (usually C-d) <DD> The character indicating end-of-file as set, for example, by <TT>stty</TT>. If this character is read when there are no characters on the line, and point is at the beginning of the line, Readline interprets it as the end of input and returns <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EOF</B>. </FONT> <DT><B>delete-char (C-d)</B> <DD> Delete the character at point. If this function is bound to the same character as the tty <B>EOF</B> character, as <B>C-d</B> commonly is, see above for the effects. <DT><B>backward-delete-char (Rubout)</B> <DD> Delete the character behind the cursor. When given a numeric argument, save the deleted text on the kill ring. <DT><B>forward-backward-delete-char</B> <DD> Delete the character under the cursor, unless the cursor is at the end of the line, in which case the character behind the cursor is deleted. <DT><B>quoted-insert (C-q, C-v)</B> <DD> Add the next character typed to the line verbatim. This is how to insert characters like <B>C-q</B>, for example. <DT><B>tab-insert (C-v TAB)</B> <DD> Insert a tab character. <DT><B>self-insert (a, b, A, 1, !, ...)</B> <DD> Insert the character typed. <DT><B>transpose-chars (C-t)</B> <DD> Drag the character before point forward over the character at point, moving point forward as well. If point is at the end of the line, then this transposes the two characters before point. Negative arguments have no effect. <DT><B>transpose-words (M-t)</B> <DD> Drag the word before point past the word after point, moving point over that word as well. If point is at the end of the line, this transposes the last two words on the line. <DT><B>upcase-word (M-u)</B> <DD> Uppercase the current (or following) word. With a negative argument, uppercase the previous word, but do not move point. <DT><B>downcase-word (M-l)</B> <DD> Lowercase the current (or following) word. With a negative argument, lowercase the previous word, but do not move point. <DT><B>capitalize-word (M-c)</B> <DD> Capitalize the current (or following) word. With a negative argument, capitalize the previous word, but do not move point. <DT><B>overwrite-mode</B> <DD> Toggle overwrite mode. With an explicit positive numeric argument, switches to overwrite mode. With an explicit non-positive numeric argument, switches to insert mode. This command affects only <B>emacs</B> mode; <B>vi</B> mode does overwrite differently. Each call to <I>readline()</I> starts in insert mode. In overwrite mode, characters bound to <B>self-insert</B> replace the text at point rather than pushing the text to the right. Characters bound to <B>backward-delete-char</B> replace the character before point with a space. By default, this command is unbound. </DL> <A NAME="lbCQ"> </A> <H4>Killing and Yanking</H4> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>kill-line (C-k)</B> <DD> Kill the text from point to the end of the line. <DT><B>backward-kill-line (C-x Rubout)</B> <DD> Kill backward to the beginning of the line. <DT><B>unix-line-discard (C-u)</B> <DD> Kill backward from point to the beginning of the line. The killed text is saved on the kill-ring. <DT><B>kill-whole-line</B> <DD> Kill all characters on the current line, no matter where point is. <DT><B>kill-word (M-d)</B> <DD> Kill from point to the end of the current word, or if between words, to the end of the next word. Word boundaries are the same as those used by <B>forward-word</B>. <DT><B>backward-kill-word (M-Rubout)</B> <DD> Kill the word behind point. Word boundaries are the same as those used by <B>backward-word</B>. <DT><B>shell-kill-word</B> <DD> Kill from point to the end of the current word, or if between words, to the end of the next word. Word boundaries are the same as those used by <B>shell-forward-word</B>. <DT><B>shell-backward-kill-word</B> <DD> Kill the word behind point. Word boundaries are the same as those used by <B>shell-backward-word</B>. <DT><B>unix-word-rubout (C-w)</B> <DD> Kill the word behind point, using white space as a word boundary. The killed text is saved on the kill-ring. <DT><B>unix-filename-rubout</B> <DD> Kill the word behind point, using white space and the slash character as the word boundaries. The killed text is saved on the kill-ring. <DT><B>delete-horizontal-space (M-\)</B> <DD> Delete all spaces and tabs around point. <DT><B>kill-region</B> <DD> Kill the text in the current region. <DT><B>copy-region-as-kill</B> <DD> Copy the text in the region to the kill buffer. <DT><B>copy-backward-word</B> <DD> Copy the word before point to the kill buffer. The word boundaries are the same as <B>backward-word</B>. <DT><B>copy-forward-word</B> <DD> Copy the word following point to the kill buffer. The word boundaries are the same as <B>forward-word</B>. <DT><B>yank (C-y)</B> <DD> Yank the top of the kill ring into the buffer at point. <DT><B>yank-pop (M-y)</B> <DD> Rotate the kill ring, and yank the new top. Only works following <B>yank</B> or <B>yank-pop</B>. </DL> <A NAME="lbCR"> </A> <H4>Numeric Arguments</H4> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>digit-argument (M-0, M-1, ..., M--)</B> <DD> Add this digit to the argument already accumulating, or start a new argument. M-- starts a negative argument. <DT><B>universal-argument</B> <DD> This is another way to specify an argument. If this command is followed by one or more digits, optionally with a leading minus sign, those digits define the argument. If the command is followed by digits, executing <B>universal-argument</B> again ends the numeric argument, but is otherwise ignored. As a special case, if this command is immediately followed by a character that is neither a digit nor minus sign, the argument count for the next command is multiplied by four. The argument count is initially one, so executing this function the first time makes the argument count four, a second time makes the argument count sixteen, and so on. </DL> <A NAME="lbCS"> </A> <H4>Completing</H4> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>complete (TAB)</B> <DD> Attempt to perform completion on the text before point. <B>Bash</B> attempts completion treating the text as a variable (if the text begins with <B>$</B>), username (if the text begins with <B>~</B>), hostname (if the text begins with <B>@</B>), or command (including aliases and functions) in turn. If none of these produces a match, filename completion is attempted. <DT><B>possible-completions (M-?)</B> <DD> List the possible completions of the text before point. <DT><B>insert-completions (M-*)</B> <DD> Insert all completions of the text before point that would have been generated by <B>possible-completions</B>. <DT><B>menu-complete</B> <DD> Similar to <B>complete</B>, but replaces the word to be completed with a single match from the list of possible completions. Repeated execution of <B>menu-complete</B> steps through the list of possible completions, inserting each match in turn. At the end of the list of completions, the bell is rung (subject to the setting of <B>bell-style</B>) and the original text is restored. An argument of <I>n</I> moves <I>n</I> positions forward in the list of matches; a negative argument may be used to move backward through the list. This command is intended to be bound to <B>TAB</B>, but is unbound by default. <DT><B>menu-complete-backward</B> <DD> Identical to <B>menu-complete</B>, but moves backward through the list of possible completions, as if <B>menu-complete</B> had been given a negative argument. This command is unbound by default. <DT><B>delete-char-or-list</B> <DD> Deletes the character under the cursor if not at the beginning or end of the line (like <B>delete-char</B>). If at the end of the line, behaves identically to <B>possible-completions</B>. This command is unbound by default. <DT><B>complete-filename (M-/)</B> <DD> Attempt filename completion on the text before point. <DT><B>possible-filename-completions (C-x /)</B> <DD> List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a filename. <DT><B>complete-username (M-~)</B> <DD> Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a username. <DT><B>possible-username-completions (C-x ~)</B> <DD> List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a username. <DT><B>complete-variable (M-$)</B> <DD> Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a shell variable. <DT><B>possible-variable-completions (C-x $)</B> <DD> List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a shell variable. <DT><B>complete-hostname (M-@)</B> <DD> Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a hostname. <DT><B>possible-hostname-completions (C-x @)</B> <DD> List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a hostname. <DT><B>complete-command (M-!)</B> <DD> Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a command name. Command completion attempts to match the text against aliases, reserved words, shell functions, shell builtins, and finally executable filenames, in that order. <DT><B>possible-command-completions (C-x !)</B> <DD> List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a command name. <DT><B>dynamic-complete-history (M-TAB)</B> <DD> Attempt completion on the text before point, comparing the text against lines from the history list for possible completion matches. <DT><B>dabbrev-expand</B> <DD> Attempt menu completion on the text before point, comparing the text against lines from the history list for possible completion matches. <DT><B>complete-into-braces (M-{)</B> <DD> Perform filename completion and insert the list of possible completions enclosed within braces so the list is available to the shell (see <B>Brace Expansion</B> above). </DL> <A NAME="lbCT"> </A> <H4>Keyboard Macros</H4> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>start-kbd-macro (C-x ()</B> <DD> Begin saving the characters typed into the current keyboard macro. <DT><B>end-kbd-macro (C-x ))</B> <DD> Stop saving the characters typed into the current keyboard macro and store the definition. <DT><B>call-last-kbd-macro (C-x e)</B> <DD> Re-execute the last keyboard macro defined, by making the characters in the macro appear as if typed at the keyboard. <DT><B>print-last-kbd-macro ()</B> <DD> Print the last keyboard macro defined in a format suitable for the <I>inputrc</I> file. </DL> <A NAME="lbCU"> </A> <H4>Miscellaneous</H4> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>re-read-init-file (C-x C-r)</B> <DD> Read in the contents of the <I>inputrc</I> file, and incorporate any bindings or variable assignments found there. <DT><B>abort (C-g)</B> <DD> Abort the current editing command and ring the terminal's bell (subject to the setting of <B>bell-style</B>). <DT><B>do-lowercase-version (M-A, M-B, M-</B><I>x</I>, ...) <DD> If the metafied character <I>x</I> is uppercase, run the command that is bound to the corresponding metafied lowercase character. The behavior is undefined if <I>x</I> is already lowercase. <DT><B>prefix-meta (ESC)</B> <DD> Metafy the next character typed. <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ESC</B> </FONT> <B>f</B> is equivalent to <B>Meta-f</B>. <DT><B>undo (C-_, C-x C-u)</B> <DD> Incremental undo, separately remembered for each line. <DT><B>revert-line (M-r)</B> <DD> Undo all changes made to this line. This is like executing the <B>undo</B> command enough times to return the line to its initial state. <DT><B>tilde-expand (M-&)</B> <DD> Perform tilde expansion on the current word. <DT><B>set-mark (C-@, M-<space>)</B> <DD> Set the mark to the point. If a numeric argument is supplied, the mark is set to that position. <DT><B>exchange-point-and-mark (C-x C-x)</B> <DD> Swap the point with the mark. The current cursor position is set to the saved position, and the old cursor position is saved as the mark. <DT><B>character-search (C-])</B> <DD> A character is read and point is moved to the next occurrence of that character. A negative count searches for previous occurrences. <DT><B>character-search-backward (M-C-])</B> <DD> A character is read and point is moved to the previous occurrence of that character. A negative count searches for subsequent occurrences. <DT><B>skip-csi-sequence</B> <DD> Read enough characters to consume a multi-key sequence such as those defined for keys like Home and End. Such sequences begin with a Control Sequence Indicator (CSI), usually ESC-[. If this sequence is bound to "\[", keys producing such sequences will have no effect unless explicitly bound to a readline command, instead of inserting stray characters into the editing buffer. This is unbound by default, but usually bound to ESC-[. <DT><B>insert-comment (M-#)</B> <DD> Without a numeric argument, the value of the readline <B>comment-begin</B> variable is inserted at the beginning of the current line. If a numeric argument is supplied, this command acts as a toggle: if the characters at the beginning of the line do not match the value of <B>comment-begin</B>, the value is inserted, otherwise the characters in <B>comment-begin</B> are deleted from the beginning of the line. In either case, the line is accepted as if a newline had been typed. The default value of <B>comment-begin</B> causes this command to make the current line a shell comment. If a numeric argument causes the comment character to be removed, the line will be executed by the shell. <DT><B>glob-complete-word (M-g)</B> <DD> The word before point is treated as a pattern for pathname expansion, with an asterisk implicitly appended. This pattern is used to generate a list of matching filenames for possible completions. <DT><B>glob-expand-word (C-x *)</B> <DD> The word before point is treated as a pattern for pathname expansion, and the list of matching filenames is inserted, replacing the word. If a numeric argument is supplied, an asterisk is appended before pathname expansion. <DT><B>glob-list-expansions (C-x g)</B> <DD> The list of expansions that would have been generated by <B>glob-expand-word</B> is displayed, and the line is redrawn. If a numeric argument is supplied, an asterisk is appended before pathname expansion. <DT><B>dump-functions</B> <DD> Print all of the functions and their key bindings to the readline output stream. If a numeric argument is supplied, the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part of an <I>inputrc</I> file. <DT><B>dump-variables</B> <DD> Print all of the settable readline variables and their values to the readline output stream. If a numeric argument is supplied, the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part of an <I>inputrc</I> file. <DT><B>dump-macros</B> <DD> Print all of the readline key sequences bound to macros and the strings they output. If a numeric argument is supplied, the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part of an <I>inputrc</I> file. <DT><B>display-shell-version (C-x C-v)</B> <DD> Display version information about the current instance of <B>bash</B>. </DL> <A NAME="lbCV"> </A> <H4>Programmable Completion</H4> When word completion is attempted for an argument to a command for which a completion specification (a <I>compspec</I>) has been defined using the <B>complete</B> builtin (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below), the programmable completion facilities are invoked. <P> First, the command name is identified. If the command word is the empty string (completion attempted at the beginning of an empty line), any compspec defined with the <B>-E</B> option to <B>complete</B> is used. If a compspec has been defined for that command, the compspec is used to generate the list of possible completions for the word. If the command word is a full pathname, a compspec for the full pathname is searched for first. If no compspec is found for the full pathname, an attempt is made to find a compspec for the portion following the final slash. If those searches do not result in a compspec, any compspec defined with the <B>-D</B> option to <B>complete</B> is used as the default. If there is no default compspec, <B>bash</B> attempts alias expansion on the command word as a final resort, and attempts to find a compspec for the command word from any successful expansion. <P> Once a compspec has been found, it is used to generate the list of matching words. If a compspec is not found, the default <B>bash</B> completion as described above under <B>Completing</B> is performed. <P> First, the actions specified by the compspec are used. Only matches which are prefixed by the word being completed are returned. When the <B>-f</B> or <B>-d</B> option is used for filename or directory name completion, the shell variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FIGNORE</B> </FONT> is used to filter the matches. <P> Any completions specified by a pathname expansion pattern to the <B>-G</B> option are generated next. The words generated by the pattern need not match the word being completed. The <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> shell variable is not used to filter the matches, but the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FIGNORE</B> </FONT> variable is used. <P> Next, the string specified as the argument to the <B>-W</B> option is considered. The string is first split using the characters in the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> special variable as delimiters. Shell quoting is honored. Each word is then expanded using brace expansion, tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion, as described above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EXPANSION</B>. </FONT> The results are split using the rules described above under <B>Word Splitting</B>. The results of the expansion are prefix-matched against the word being completed, and the matching words become the possible completions. <P> After these matches have been generated, any shell function or command specified with the <B>-F</B> and <B>-C</B> options is invoked. When the command or function is invoked, the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMP_LINE</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMP_POINT</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMP_KEY</B>, </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMP_TYPE</B> </FONT> variables are assigned values as described above under <B>Shell Variables</B>. If a shell function is being invoked, the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMP_WORDS</B> </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMP_CWORD</B> </FONT> variables are also set. When the function or command is invoked, the first argument (<B>$1</B>) is the name of the command whose arguments are being completed, the second argument (<B>$2</B>) is the word being completed, and the third argument (<B>$3</B>) is the word preceding the word being completed on the current command line. No filtering of the generated completions against the word being completed is performed; the function or command has complete freedom in generating the matches. <P> Any function specified with <B>-F</B> is invoked first. The function may use any of the shell facilities, including the <B>compgen</B> builtin described below, to generate the matches. It must put the possible completions in the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMPREPLY</B> </FONT> array variable, one per array element. <P> Next, any command specified with the <B>-C</B> option is invoked in an environment equivalent to command substitution. It should print a list of completions, one per line, to the standard output. Backslash may be used to escape a newline, if necessary. <P> After all of the possible completions are generated, any filter specified with the <B>-X</B> option is applied to the list. The filter is a pattern as used for pathname expansion; a <B>&</B> in the pattern is replaced with the text of the word being completed. A literal <B>&</B> may be escaped with a backslash; the backslash is removed before attempting a match. Any completion that matches the pattern will be removed from the list. A leading <B>!</B> negates the pattern; in this case any completion not matching the pattern will be removed. If the <B>nocasematch</B> shell option is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. <P> Finally, any prefix and suffix specified with the <B>-P</B> and <B>-S</B> options are added to each member of the completion list, and the result is returned to the readline completion code as the list of possible completions. <P> If the previously-applied actions do not generate any matches, and the <B>-o dirnames</B> option was supplied to <B>complete</B> when the compspec was defined, directory name completion is attempted. <P> If the <B>-o plusdirs</B> option was supplied to <B>complete</B> when the compspec was defined, directory name completion is attempted and any matches are added to the results of the other actions. <P> By default, if a compspec is found, whatever it generates is returned to the completion code as the full set of possible completions. The default <B>bash</B> completions are not attempted, and the readline default of filename completion is disabled. If the <B>-o bashdefault</B> option was supplied to <B>complete</B> when the compspec was defined, the <B>bash</B> default completions are attempted if the compspec generates no matches. If the <B>-o default</B> option was supplied to <B>complete</B> when the compspec was defined, readline's default completion will be performed if the compspec (and, if attempted, the default <B>bash</B> completions) generate no matches. <P> When a compspec indicates that directory name completion is desired, the programmable completion functions force readline to append a slash to completed names which are symbolic links to directories, subject to the value of the <B>mark-directories</B> readline variable, regardless of the setting of the <B>mark-symlinked-directories</B> readline variable. <P> There is some support for dynamically modifying completions. This is most useful when used in combination with a default completion specified with <B>complete -D</B>. It's possible for shell functions executed as completion handlers to indicate that completion should be retried by returning an exit status of 124. If a shell function returns 124, and changes the compspec associated with the command on which completion is being attempted (supplied as the first argument when the function is executed), programmable completion restarts from the beginning, with an attempt to find a new compspec for that command. This allows a set of completions to be built dynamically as completion is attempted, rather than being loaded all at once. <P> For instance, assuming that there is a library of compspecs, each kept in a file corresponding to the name of the command, the following default completion function would load completions dynamically: <P> <TT>_completion_loader() <BR> { <BR> <TT> </TT>. "/etc/bash_completion.d/$1.sh" >/dev/null 2>&1 && return 124<BR> <BR> } <BR> complete -D -F _completion_loader -o bashdefault -o default <BR> </TT> <A NAME="lbCW"> </A> <H3>HISTORY</H3> When the <B>-o history</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin is enabled, the shell provides access to the <I>command history</I>, the list of commands previously typed. The value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTSIZE</B> </FONT> variable is used as the number of commands to save in a history list. The text of the last <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTSIZE</B> </FONT> commands (default 500) is saved. The shell stores each command in the history list prior to parameter and variable expansion (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EXPANSION</B> </FONT> above) but after history expansion is performed, subject to the values of the shell variables <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTIGNORE</B> </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTCONTROL</B>. </FONT> <P> On startup, the history is initialized from the file named by the variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTFILE</B> </FONT> (default <A HREF="file:~/.bash_history"><I>~/.bash_history</I></A>). The file named by the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTFILE</B> </FONT> is truncated, if necessary, to contain no more than the number of lines specified by the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTFILESIZE</B>. </FONT> If <B>HISTFILESIZE</B> is unset, or set to null, a non-numeric value, or a numeric value less than zero, the history file is not truncated. When the history file is read, lines beginning with the history comment character followed immediately by a digit are interpreted as timestamps for the following history line. These timestamps are optionally displayed depending on the value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTTIMEFORMAT</B> </FONT> variable. When a shell with history enabled exits, the last <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$HISTSIZE</B> </FONT> lines are copied from the history list to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$HISTFILE</B>. </FONT> If the <B>histappend</B> shell option is enabled (see the description of <B>shopt</B> under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below), the lines are appended to the history file, otherwise the history file is overwritten. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTFILE</B> </FONT> is unset, or if the history file is unwritable, the history is not saved. If the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTTIMEFORMAT</B> </FONT> variable is set, time stamps are written to the history file, marked with the history comment character, so they may be preserved across shell sessions. This uses the history comment character to distinguish timestamps from other history lines. After saving the history, the history file is truncated to contain no more than <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTFILESIZE</B> </FONT> lines. If <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTFILESIZE</B> </FONT> is unset, or set to null, a non-numeric value, or a numeric value less than zero, the history file is not truncated. <P> The builtin command <B>fc</B> (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below) may be used to list or edit and re-execute a portion of the history list. The <B>history</B> builtin may be used to display or modify the history list and manipulate the history file. When using command-line editing, search commands are available in each editing mode that provide access to the history list. <P> The shell allows control over which commands are saved on the history list. The <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTCONTROL</B> </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTIGNORE</B> </FONT> variables may be set to cause the shell to save only a subset of the commands entered. The <B>cmdhist</B> shell option, if enabled, causes the shell to attempt to save each line of a multi-line command in the same history entry, adding semicolons where necessary to preserve syntactic correctness. The <B>lithist</B> shell option causes the shell to save the command with embedded newlines instead of semicolons. See the description of the <B>shopt</B> builtin below under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> for information on setting and unsetting shell options. <A NAME="lbCX"> </A> <H3>HISTORY EXPANSION</H3> The shell supports a history expansion feature that is similar to the history expansion in <B>csh</B>. This section describes what syntax features are available. This feature is enabled by default for interactive shells, and can be disabled using the <B>+H</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</B> </FONT> below). Non-interactive shells do not perform history expansion by default. <P> History expansions introduce words from the history list into the input stream, making it easy to repeat commands, insert the arguments to a previous command into the current input line, or fix errors in previous commands quickly. <P> History expansion is performed immediately after a complete line is read, before the shell breaks it into words, and is performed on each line individually without taking quoting on previous lines into account. It takes place in two parts. The first is to determine which line from the history list to use during substitution. The second is to select portions of that line for inclusion into the current one. The line selected from the history is the <I>event</I>, and the portions of that line that are acted upon are <I>words</I>. Various <I>modifiers</I> are available to manipulate the selected words. The line is broken into words in the same fashion as when reading input, so that several <I>metacharacter</I>-separated words surrounded by quotes are considered one word. History expansions are introduced by the appearance of the history expansion character, which is <B>!</B> by default. Only backslash (<B>\</B>) and single quotes can quote the history expansion character, but the history expansion character is also treated as quoted if it immediately precedes the closing double quote in a double-quoted string. <P> Several characters inhibit history expansion if found immediately following the history expansion character, even if it is unquoted: space, tab, newline, carriage return, and <B>=</B>. If the <B>extglob</B> shell option is enabled, <B>(</B> will also inhibit expansion. <P> Several shell options settable with the <B>shopt</B> builtin may be used to tailor the behavior of history expansion. If the <B>histverify</B> shell option is enabled (see the description of the <B>shopt</B> builtin below), and <B>readline</B> is being used, history substitutions are not immediately passed to the shell parser. Instead, the expanded line is reloaded into the <B>readline</B> editing buffer for further modification. If <B>readline</B> is being used, and the <B>histreedit</B> shell option is enabled, a failed history substitution will be reloaded into the <B>readline</B> editing buffer for correction. The <B>-p</B> option to the <B>history</B> builtin command may be used to see what a history expansion will do before using it. The <B>-s</B> option to the <B>history</B> builtin may be used to add commands to the end of the history list without actually executing them, so that they are available for subsequent recall. <P> The shell allows control of the various characters used by the history expansion mechanism (see the description of <B>histchars</B> above under <B>Shell Variables</B>). The shell uses the history comment character to mark history timestamps when writing the history file. <A NAME="lbCY"> </A> <H4>Event Designators</H4> An event designator is a reference to a command line entry in the history list. Unless the reference is absolute, events are relative to the current position in the history list. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>!</B> <DD> Start a history substitution, except when followed by a <B>blank</B>, newline, carriage return, = or ( (when the <B>extglob</B> shell option is enabled using the <B>shopt</B> builtin). <DT><B>!</B><I>n</I> <DD> Refer to command line <I>n</I>. <DT><B>!-</B><I>n</I> <DD> Refer to the current command minus <I>n</I>. <DT><B>!!</B> <DD> Refer to the previous command. This is a synonym for `!-1'. <DT><B>!</B><I>string</I> <DD> Refer to the most recent command preceding the current position in the history list starting with <I>string</I>. <DT><B>!?</B><I>string</I><B>[?]</B> <DD> Refer to the most recent command preceding the current position in the history list containing <I>string</I>. The trailing <B>?</B> may be omitted if <I>string</I> is followed immediately by a newline. If <I>string</I> is missing, the string from the most recent search is used; it is an error if there is no previous search string. <DT><B></B><FONT SIZE=+2><B>^</B></FONT><B></B><I>string1</I><FONT SIZE=+2>^</FONT><I>string2</I><FONT SIZE=+2>^</FONT> <DD> Quick substitution. Repeat the previous command, replacing <I>string1</I> with <I>string2</I>. Equivalent to ``!!:s<FONT SIZE=+2>^</FONT><I>string1</I><FONT SIZE=+2>^</FONT><I>string2</I><FONT SIZE=+2>^</FONT>'' (see <B>Modifiers</B> below). <DT><B>!#</B> <DD> The entire command line typed so far. </DL> <A NAME="lbCZ"> </A> <H4>Word Designators</H4> Word designators are used to select desired words from the event. A <B>:</B> separates the event specification from the word designator. It may be omitted if the word designator begins with a <B>^</B>, <B>$</B>, <B>*</B>, <B>-</B>, or <B>%</B>. Words are numbered from the beginning of the line, with the first word being denoted by 0 (zero). Words are inserted into the current line separated by single spaces. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>0 (zero)</B> <DD> The zeroth word. For the shell, this is the command word. <DT><I>n</I> <DD> The <I>n</I>th word. <DT><B>^</B> <DD> The first argument. That is, word 1. <DT><B>$</B> <DD> The last word. This is usually the last argument, but will expand to the zeroth word if there is only one word in the line. <DT><B>%</B> <DD> The first word matched by the most recent `?<I>string</I>?' search, if the search string begins with a character that is part of a word. <DT><I>x</I><B>-</B>y <DD> A range of words; `-<I>y</I>' abbreviates `0-<I>y</I>'. <DT><B>*</B> <DD> All of the words but the zeroth. This is a synonym for `<I>1-$</I>'. It is not an error to use <B>*</B> if there is just one word in the event; the empty string is returned in that case. <DT><B>x*</B> <DD> Abbreviates <I>x-$</I>. <DT><B>x-</B> <DD> Abbreviates <I>x-$</I> like <B>x*</B>, but omits the last word. If <B>x</B> is missing, it defaults to 0. </DL> <P> If a word designator is supplied without an event specification, the previous command is used as the event. <A NAME="lbDA"> </A> <H4>Modifiers</H4> After the optional word designator, there may appear a sequence of one or more of the following modifiers, each preceded by a `:'. These modify, or edit, the word or words selected from the history event. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>h</B> <DD> Remove a trailing filename component, leaving only the head. <DT><B>t</B> <DD> Remove all leading filename components, leaving the tail. <DT><B>r</B> <DD> Remove a trailing suffix of the form <I>.xxx</I>, leaving the basename. <DT><B>e</B> <DD> Remove all but the trailing suffix. <DT><B>p</B> <DD> Print the new command but do not execute it. <DT><B>q</B> <DD> Quote the substituted words, escaping further substitutions. <DT><B>x</B> <DD> Quote the substituted words as with <B>q</B>, but break into words at <B>blanks</B> and newlines. The <B>q</B> and <B>x</B> modifiers are mutually exclusive; the last one supplied is used. <DT><B>s/</B><I>old</I>/<I>new</I>/ <DD> Substitute <I>new</I> for the first occurrence of <I>old</I> in the event line. Any character may be used as the delimiter in place of /. The final delimiter is optional if it is the last character of the event line. The delimiter may be quoted in <I>old</I> and <I>new</I> with a single backslash. If & appears in <I>new</I>, it is replaced by <I>old</I>. A single backslash will quote the &. If <I>old</I> is null, it is set to the last <I>old</I> substituted, or, if no previous history substitutions took place, the last <I>string</I> in a <B>!?</B><I>string</I><B>[?]</B> search. If <I>new</I> is null, each matching <I>old</I> is deleted. <DT><B>&</B> <DD> Repeat the previous substitution. <DT><B>g</B> <DD> Cause changes to be applied over the entire event line. This is used in conjunction with `<B>:s</B>' (e.g., `<B>:gs/</B><I>old</I>/<I>new</I>/') or `<B>:&</B>'. If used with `<B>:s</B>', any delimiter can be used in place of /, and the final delimiter is optional if it is the last character of the event line. An <B>a</B> may be used as a synonym for <B>g</B>. <DT><B>G</B> <DD> Apply the following `<B>s</B>' or `<B>&</B>' modifier once to each word in the event line. </DL> <A NAME="lbDB"> </A> <H3>SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</H3> <P> Unless otherwise noted, each builtin command documented in this section as accepting options preceded by <B>-</B> accepts <B>--</B> to signify the end of the options. The <B>:</B>, <B>true</B>, <B>false</B>, and <B>test</B>/<B>[</B> builtins do not accept options and do not treat <B>--</B> specially. The <B>exit</B>, <B>logout</B>, <B>return</B>, <B>break</B>, <B>continue</B>, <B>let</B>, and <B>shift</B> builtins accept and process arguments beginning with <B>-</B> without requiring <B>--</B>. Other builtins that accept arguments but are not specified as accepting options interpret arguments beginning with <B>-</B> as invalid options and require <B>--</B> to prevent this interpretation. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>:</B> [<I>arguments</I>]<DD> No effect; the command does nothing beyond expanding <I>arguments</I> and performing any specified redirections. The return status is zero. <DT><B> . </B> <I>filename</I> [<I>arguments</I>]<DD> <DT><B>source</B> <I>filename</I> [<I>arguments</I>]<DD> Read and execute commands from <I>filename</I> in the current shell environment and return the exit status of the last command executed from <I>filename</I>. If <I>filename</I> does not contain a slash, filenames in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> are used to find the directory containing <I>filename</I>. The file searched for in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> need not be executable. When <B>bash</B> is not in <I>posix mode</I>, the current directory is searched if no file is found in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B>. </FONT> If the <B>sourcepath</B> option to the <B>shopt</B> builtin command is turned off, the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> is not searched. If any <I>arguments</I> are supplied, they become the positional parameters when <I>filename</I> is executed. Otherwise the positional parameters are unchanged. If the <B>-T</B> option is enabled, <B>source</B> inherits any trap on <B>DEBUG</B>; if it is not, any <B>DEBUG</B> trap string is saved and restored around the call to <B>source</B>, and <B>source</B> unsets the <B>DEBUG</B> trap while it executes. If <B>-T</B> is not set, and the sourced file changes the <B>DEBUG</B> trap, the new value is retained when <B>source</B> completes. The return status is the status of the last command exited within the script (0 if no commands are executed), and false if <I>filename</I> is not found or cannot be read. <DT><B>alias</B> [<B>-p</B>] [<I>name</I>[=<I>value</I>] ...]<DD> <B>Alias</B> with no arguments or with the <B>-p</B> option prints the list of aliases in the form <B>alias</B> <I>name</I>=<I>value</I> on standard output. When arguments are supplied, an alias is defined for each <I>name</I> whose <I>value</I> is given. A trailing space in <I>value</I> causes the next word to be checked for alias substitution when the alias is expanded. For each <I>name</I> in the argument list for which no <I>value</I> is supplied, the name and value of the alias is printed. <B>Alias</B> returns true unless a <I>name</I> is given for which no alias has been defined. <DT><B>bg</B> [<I>jobspec</I> ...]<DD> Resume each suspended job <I>jobspec</I> in the background, as if it had been started with <B>&</B>. If <I>jobspec</I> is not present, the shell's notion of the <I>current job</I> is used. <B>bg</B> <I>jobspec</I> returns 0 unless run when job control is disabled or, when run with job control enabled, any specified <I>jobspec</I> was not found or was started without job control. <DT><B>bind</B> [<B>-m</B> <I>keymap</I>] [<B>-lpsvPSVX</B>]<DD> <DT><B>bind</B> [<B>-m</B> <I>keymap</I>] [<B>-q</B> <I>function</I>] [<B>-u</B> <I>function</I>] [<B>-r</B> <I>keyseq</I>]<DD> <DT><B>bind</B> [<B>-m</B> <I>keymap</I>] <B>-f</B> <I>filename</I><DD> <DT><B>bind</B> [<B>-m</B> <I>keymap</I>] <B>-x</B> <I>keyseq</I>:<I>shell-command</I><DD> <DT><B>bind</B> [<B>-m</B> <I>keymap</I>] <I>keyseq</I>:<I>function-name</I><DD> <DT><B>bind</B> [<B>-m</B> <I>keymap</I>] <I>keyseq</I>:<I>readline-command</I><DD> Display current <B>readline</B> key and function bindings, bind a key sequence to a <B>readline</B> function or macro, or set a <B>readline</B> variable. Each non-option argument is a command as it would appear in <I>.inputrc</I>, but each binding or command must be passed as a separate argument; e.g., '"\C-x\C-r": re-read-init-file'. Options, if supplied, have the following meanings: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-m </B><I>keymap</I> <DD> Use <I>keymap</I> as the keymap to be affected by the subsequent bindings. Acceptable <I>keymap</I> names are <I>emacs, emacs-standard, emacs-meta, emacs-ctlx, vi, vi-move, vi-command</I>, and <I>vi-insert</I>. <I>vi</I> is equivalent to <I>vi-command</I> (<I>vi-move</I> is also a synonym); <I>emacs</I> is equivalent to <I>emacs-standard</I>. <DT><B>-l</B> <DD> List the names of all <B>readline</B> functions. <DT><B>-p</B> <DD> Display <B>readline</B> function names and bindings in such a way that they can be re-read. <DT><B>-P</B> <DD> List current <B>readline</B> function names and bindings. <DT><B>-s</B> <DD> Display <B>readline</B> key sequences bound to macros and the strings they output in such a way that they can be re-read. <DT><B>-S</B> <DD> Display <B>readline</B> key sequences bound to macros and the strings they output. <DT><B>-v</B> <DD> Display <B>readline</B> variable names and values in such a way that they can be re-read. <DT><B>-V</B> <DD> List current <B>readline</B> variable names and values. <DT><B>-f </B><I>filename</I> <DD> Read key bindings from <I>filename</I>. <DT><B>-q </B><I>function</I> <DD> Query about which keys invoke the named <I>function</I>. <DT><B>-u </B><I>function</I> <DD> Unbind all keys bound to the named <I>function</I>. <DT><B>-r </B><I>keyseq</I> <DD> Remove any current binding for <I>keyseq</I>. <DT><B>-x </B><I>keyseq</I>:<I>shell-command</I> <DD> Cause <I>shell-command</I> to be executed whenever <I>keyseq</I> is entered. When <I>shell-command</I> is executed, the shell sets the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE_LINE</B> </FONT> variable to the contents of the <B>readline</B> line buffer and the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE_POINT</B> </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE_MARK</B> </FONT> variables to the current location of the insertion point and the saved insertion point (the mark), respectively. If the executed command changes the value of any of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE_LINE</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE_POINT</B>, </FONT> or <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE_MARK</B>, </FONT> those new values will be reflected in the editing state. <DT><B>-X</B> <DD> List all key sequences bound to shell commands and the associated commands in a format that can be reused as input. </DL> <P> The return value is 0 unless an unrecognized option is given or an error occurred. </DL> <DT><B>break</B> [<I>n</I>]<DD> Exit from within a <B>for</B>, <B>while</B>, <B>until</B>, or <B>select</B> loop. If <I>n</I> is specified, break <I>n</I> levels. <I>n</I> must be >= 1. If <I>n</I> is greater than the number of enclosing loops, all enclosing loops are exited. The return value is 0 unless <I>n</I> is not greater than or equal to 1. <DT><B>builtin</B> <I>shell-builtin</I> [<I>arguments</I>]<DD> Execute the specified shell builtin, passing it <I>arguments</I>, and return its exit status. This is useful when defining a function whose name is the same as a shell builtin, retaining the functionality of the builtin within the function. The <B>cd</B> builtin is commonly redefined this way. The return status is false if <I>shell-builtin</I> is not a shell builtin command. <DT><B>caller</B> [<I>expr</I>]<DD> Returns the context of any active subroutine call (a shell function or a script executed with the <B>.</B> or <B>source</B> builtins). Without <I>expr</I>, <B>caller</B> displays the line number and source filename of the current subroutine call. If a non-negative integer is supplied as <I>expr</I>, <B>caller</B> displays the line number, subroutine name, and source file corresponding to that position in the current execution call stack. This extra information may be used, for example, to print a stack trace. The current frame is frame 0. The return value is 0 unless the shell is not executing a subroutine call or <I>expr</I> does not correspond to a valid position in the call stack. <DT><B>cd</B> [<B>-L</B>|[<B>-P</B> [<B>-e</B>]] [-@]] [<I>dir</I>]<DD> Change the current directory to <I>dir</I>. if <I>dir</I> is not supplied, the value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HOME</B> </FONT> shell variable is the default. Any additional arguments following <I>dir</I> are ignored. The variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CDPATH</B> </FONT> defines the search path for the directory containing <I>dir</I>: each directory name in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CDPATH</B> </FONT> is searched for <I>dir</I>. Alternative directory names in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CDPATH</B> </FONT> are separated by a colon (:). A null directory name in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CDPATH</B> </FONT> is the same as the current directory, i.e., ``<B>.</B>''. If <I>dir</I> begins with a slash (/), then <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CDPATH</B> </FONT> is not used. The <B>-P</B> option causes <B>cd</B> to use the physical directory structure by resolving symbolic links while traversing <I>dir</I> and before processing instances of <I>..</I> in <I>dir</I> (see also the <B>-P</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin command); the <B>-L</B> option forces symbolic links to be followed by resolving the link after processing instances of <I>..</I> in <I>dir</I>. If <I>..</I> appears in <I>dir</I>, it is processed by removing the immediately previous pathname component from <I>dir</I>, back to a slash or the beginning of <I>dir</I>. If the <B>-e</B> option is supplied with <B>-P</B>, and the current working directory cannot be successfully determined after a successful directory change, <B>cd</B> will return an unsuccessful status. On systems that support it, the <B>-@</B> option presents the extended attributes associated with a file as a directory. An argument of <B>-</B> is converted to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$OLDPWD</B> </FONT> before the directory change is attempted. If a non-empty directory name from <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CDPATH</B> </FONT> is used, or if <B>-</B> is the first argument, and the directory change is successful, the absolute pathname of the new working directory is written to the standard output. The return value is true if the directory was successfully changed; false otherwise. <DT><B>command</B> [<B>-pVv</B>] <I>command</I> [<I>arg</I> ...]<DD> Run <I>command</I> with <I>args</I> suppressing the normal shell function lookup. Only builtin commands or commands found in the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> are executed. If the <B>-p</B> option is given, the search for <I>command</I> is performed using a default value for <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> that is guaranteed to find all of the standard utilities. If either the <B>-V</B> or <B>-v</B> option is supplied, a description of <I>command</I> is printed. The <B>-v</B> option causes a single word indicating the command or filename used to invoke <I>command</I> to be displayed; the <B>-V</B> option produces a more verbose description. If the <B>-V</B> or <B>-v</B> option is supplied, the exit status is 0 if <I>command</I> was found, and 1 if not. If neither option is supplied and an error occurred or <I>command</I> cannot be found, the exit status is 127. Otherwise, the exit status of the <B>command</B> builtin is the exit status of <I>command</I>. <DT><B>compgen</B> [<I>option</I>] [<I>word</I>]<DD> Generate possible completion matches for <I>word</I> according to the <I>option</I>s, which may be any option accepted by the <B>complete</B> builtin with the exception of <B>-p</B> and <B>-r</B>, and write the matches to the standard output. When using the <B>-F</B> or <B>-C</B> options, the various shell variables set by the programmable completion facilities, while available, will not have useful values. <P> The matches will be generated in the same way as if the programmable completion code had generated them directly from a completion specification with the same flags. If <I>word</I> is specified, only those completions matching <I>word</I> will be displayed. <P> The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied, or no matches were generated. <DT><B>complete</B> [<B>-abcdefgjksuv</B>] [<B>-o</B> <I>comp-option</I>] [<B>-DEI</B>] [<B>-A</B> <I>action</I>] [<B>-G</B> <I>globpat</I>] [<B>-W</B> <I>wordlist</I>]<DD> <BR> [<B>-F</B> <I>function</I>] [<B>-C</B> <I>command</I>] [<B>-X</B> <I>filterpat</I>] [<B>-P</B> <I>prefix</I>] [<B>-S</B> <I>suffix</I>] <I>name</I> [<I>name ...</I>] <DT><B>complete</B> <B>-pr</B> [<B>-DEI</B>] [<I>name</I> ...]<DD> Specify how arguments to each <I>name</I> should be completed. If the <B>-p</B> option is supplied, or if no options are supplied, existing completion specifications are printed in a way that allows them to be reused as input. The <B>-r</B> option removes a completion specification for each <I>name</I>, or, if no <I>name</I>s are supplied, all completion specifications. The <B>-D</B> option indicates that other supplied options and actions should apply to the ``default'' command completion; that is, completion attempted on a command for which no completion has previously been defined. The <B>-E</B> option indicates that other supplied options and actions should apply to ``empty'' command completion; that is, completion attempted on a blank line. The <B>-I</B> option indicates that other supplied options and actions should apply to completion on the initial non-assignment word on the line, or after a command delimiter such as <B>;</B> or <B>|</B>, which is usually command name completion. If multiple options are supplied, the <B>-D</B> option takes precedence over <B>-E</B>, and both take precedence over <B>-I</B>. If any of <B>-D</B>, <B>-E</B>, or <B>-I</B> are supplied, any other <I>name</I> arguments are ignored; these completions only apply to the case specified by the option. <P> The process of applying these completion specifications when word completion is attempted is described above under <B>Programmable Completion</B>. <P> Other options, if specified, have the following meanings. The arguments to the <B>-G</B>, <B>-W</B>, and <B>-X</B> options (and, if necessary, the <B>-P</B> and <B>-S</B> options) should be quoted to protect them from expansion before the <B>complete</B> builtin is invoked. <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-o</B> <I>comp-option</I><DD> The <I>comp-option</I> controls several aspects of the compspec's behavior beyond the simple generation of completions. <I>comp-option</I> may be one of: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>bashdefault</B> <DD> Perform the rest of the default <B>bash</B> completions if the compspec generates no matches. <DT><B>default</B> <DD> Use readline's default filename completion if the compspec generates no matches. <DT><B>dirnames</B> <DD> Perform directory name completion if the compspec generates no matches. <DT><B>filenames</B> <DD> Tell readline that the compspec generates filenames, so it can perform any filename-specific processing (like adding a slash to directory names, quoting special characters, or suppressing trailing spaces). Intended to be used with shell functions. <DT><B>noquote</B> <DD> Tell readline not to quote the completed words if they are filenames (quoting filenames is the default). <DT><B>nosort</B> <DD> Tell readline not to sort the list of possible completions alphabetically. <DT><B>nospace</B> <DD> Tell readline not to append a space (the default) to words completed at the end of the line. <DT><B>plusdirs</B> <DD> After any matches defined by the compspec are generated, directory name completion is attempted and any matches are added to the results of the other actions. </DL></DL> <DT><B>-A</B> <I>action</I><DD> The <I>action</I> may be one of the following to generate a list of possible completions: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>alias</B> <DD> Alias names. May also be specified as <B>-a</B>. <DT><B>arrayvar</B> <DD> Array variable names. <DT><B>binding</B> <DD> <B>Readline</B> key binding names. <DT><B>builtin</B> <DD> Names of shell builtin commands. May also be specified as <B>-b</B>. <DT><B>command</B> <DD> Command names. May also be specified as <B>-c</B>. <DT><B>directory</B> <DD> Directory names. May also be specified as <B>-d</B>. <DT><B>disabled</B> <DD> Names of disabled shell builtins. <DT><B>enabled</B> <DD> Names of enabled shell builtins. <DT><B>export</B> <DD> Names of exported shell variables. May also be specified as <B>-e</B>. <DT><B>file</B> <DD> File names. May also be specified as <B>-f</B>. <DT><B>function</B> <DD> Names of shell functions. <DT><B>group</B> <DD> Group names. May also be specified as <B>-g</B>. <DT><B>helptopic</B> <DD> Help topics as accepted by the <B>help</B> builtin. <DT><B>hostname</B> <DD> Hostnames, as taken from the file specified by the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HOSTFILE</B> </FONT> shell variable. <DT><B>job</B> <DD> Job names, if job control is active. May also be specified as <B>-j</B>. <DT><B>keyword</B> <DD> Shell reserved words. May also be specified as <B>-k</B>. <DT><B>running</B> <DD> Names of running jobs, if job control is active. <DT><B>service</B> <DD> Service names. May also be specified as <B>-s</B>. <DT><B>setopt</B> <DD> Valid arguments for the <B>-o</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin. <DT><B>shopt</B> <DD> Shell option names as accepted by the <B>shopt</B> builtin. <DT><B>signal</B> <DD> Signal names. <DT><B>stopped</B> <DD> Names of stopped jobs, if job control is active. <DT><B>user</B> <DD> User names. May also be specified as <B>-u</B>. <DT><B>variable</B> <DD> Names of all shell variables. May also be specified as <B>-v</B>. </DL></DL> <DT><B>-C</B> <I>command</I><DD> <I>command</I> is executed in a subshell environment, and its output is used as the possible completions. <DT><B>-F</B> <I>function</I><DD> The shell function <I>function</I> is executed in the current shell environment. When the function is executed, the first argument (<B>$1</B>) is the name of the command whose arguments are being completed, the second argument (<B>$2</B>) is the word being completed, and the third argument (<B>$3</B>) is the word preceding the word being completed on the current command line. When it finishes, the possible completions are retrieved from the value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMPREPLY</B> </FONT> array variable. <DT><B>-G</B> <I>globpat</I><DD> The pathname expansion pattern <I>globpat</I> is expanded to generate the possible completions. <DT><B>-P</B> <I>prefix</I><DD> <I>prefix</I> is added at the beginning of each possible completion after all other options have been applied. <DT><B>-S</B> <I>suffix</I><DD> <I>suffix</I> is appended to each possible completion after all other options have been applied. <DT><B>-W</B> <I>wordlist</I><DD> The <I>wordlist</I> is split using the characters in the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> special variable as delimiters, and each resultant word is expanded. Shell quoting is honored within <I>wordlist</I>, in order to provide a mechanism for the words to contain shell metacharacters or characters in the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B>. </FONT> The possible completions are the members of the resultant list which match the word being completed. <DT><B>-X</B> <I>filterpat</I><DD> <I>filterpat</I> is a pattern as used for pathname expansion. It is applied to the list of possible completions generated by the preceding options and arguments, and each completion matching <I>filterpat</I> is removed from the list. A leading <B>!</B> in <I>filterpat</I> negates the pattern; in this case, any completion not matching <I>filterpat</I> is removed. </DL> <P> The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied, an option other than <B>-p</B> or <B>-r</B> is supplied without a <I>name</I> argument, an attempt is made to remove a completion specification for a <I>name</I> for which no specification exists, or an error occurs adding a completion specification. </DL> <DT><B>compopt</B> [<B>-o</B> <I>option</I>] [<B>-DEI</B>] [<B>+o</B> <I>option</I>] [<I>name</I>]<DD> Modify completion options for each <I>name</I> according to the <I>option</I>s, or for the currently-executing completion if no <I>name</I>s are supplied. If no <I>option</I>s are given, display the completion options for each <I>name</I> or the current completion. The possible values of <I>option</I> are those valid for the <B>complete</B> builtin described above. The <B>-D</B> option indicates that other supplied options should apply to the ``default'' command completion; that is, completion attempted on a command for which no completion has previously been defined. The <B>-E</B> option indicates that other supplied options should apply to ``empty'' command completion; that is, completion attempted on a blank line. The <B>-I</B> option indicates that other supplied options should apply to completion on the initial non-assignment word on the line, or after a command delimiter such as <B>;</B> or <B>|</B>, which is usually command name completion. <P> The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied, an attempt is made to modify the options for a <I>name</I> for which no completion specification exists, or an output error occurs. <DT><B>continue</B> [<I>n</I>]<DD> Resume the next iteration of the enclosing <B>for</B>, <B>while</B>, <B>until</B>, or <B>select</B> loop. If <I>n</I> is specified, resume at the <I>n</I>th enclosing loop. <I>n</I> must be >= 1. If <I>n</I> is greater than the number of enclosing loops, the last enclosing loop (the ``top-level'' loop) is resumed. The return value is 0 unless <I>n</I> is not greater than or equal to 1. <DT><B>declare</B> [<B>-aAfFgiIlnrtux</B>] [<B>-p</B>] [<I>name</I>[=<I>value</I>] ...]<DD> <DT><B>typeset</B> [<B>-aAfFgiIlnrtux</B>] [<B>-p</B>] [<I>name</I>[=<I>value</I>] ...]<DD> Declare variables and/or give them attributes. If no <I>name</I>s are given then display the values of variables. The <B>-p</B> option will display the attributes and values of each <I>name</I>. When <B>-p</B> is used with <I>name</I> arguments, additional options, other than <B>-f</B> and <B>-F</B>, are ignored. When <B>-p</B> is supplied without <I>name</I> arguments, it will display the attributes and values of all variables having the attributes specified by the additional options. If no other options are supplied with <B>-p</B>, <B>declare</B> will display the attributes and values of all shell variables. The <B>-f</B> option will restrict the display to shell functions. The <B>-F</B> option inhibits the display of function definitions; only the function name and attributes are printed. If the <B>extdebug</B> shell option is enabled using <B>shopt</B>, the source file name and line number where each <I>name</I> is defined are displayed as well. The <B>-F</B> option implies <B>-f</B>. The <B>-g</B> option forces variables to be created or modified at the global scope, even when <B>declare</B> is executed in a shell function. It is ignored in all other cases. The <B>-I</B> option causes local variables to inherit the attributes (except the <I>nameref</I> attribute) and value of any existing variable with the same <I>name</I> at a surrounding scope. If there is no existing variable, the local variable is initially unset. The following options can be used to restrict output to variables with the specified attribute or to give variables attributes: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-a</B> <DD> Each <I>name</I> is an indexed array variable (see <B>Arrays</B> above). <DT><B>-A</B> <DD> Each <I>name</I> is an associative array variable (see <B>Arrays</B> above). <DT><B>-f</B> <DD> Use function names only. <DT><B>-i</B> <DD> The variable is treated as an integer; arithmetic evaluation (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ARITHMETIC EVALUATION</B> </FONT> above) is performed when the variable is assigned a value. <DT><B>-l</B> <DD> When the variable is assigned a value, all upper-case characters are converted to lower-case. The upper-case attribute is disabled. <DT><B>-n</B> <DD> Give each <I>name</I> the <I>nameref</I> attribute, making it a name reference to another variable. That other variable is defined by the value of <I>name</I>. All references, assignments, and attribute modifications to <I>name</I>, except those using or changing the <B>-n</B> attribute itself, are performed on the variable referenced by <I>name</I>'s value. The nameref attribute cannot be applied to array variables. <DT><B>-r</B> <DD> Make <I>name</I>s readonly. These names cannot then be assigned values by subsequent assignment statements or unset. <DT><B>-t</B> <DD> Give each <I>name</I> the <I>trace</I> attribute. Traced functions inherit the <B>DEBUG</B> and <B>RETURN</B> traps from the calling shell. The trace attribute has no special meaning for variables. <DT><B>-u</B> <DD> When the variable is assigned a value, all lower-case characters are converted to upper-case. The lower-case attribute is disabled. <DT><B>-x</B> <DD> Mark <I>name</I>s for export to subsequent commands via the environment. </DL> <P> Using `+' instead of `-' turns off the attribute instead, with the exceptions that <B>+a</B> and <B>+A</B> may not be used to destroy array variables and <B>+r</B> will not remove the readonly attribute. When used in a function, <B>declare</B> and <B>typeset</B> make each <I>name</I> local, as with the <B>local</B> command, unless the <B>-g</B> option is supplied. If a variable name is followed by =<I>value</I>, the value of the variable is set to <I>value</I>. When using <B>-a</B> or <B>-A</B> and the compound assignment syntax to create array variables, additional attributes do not take effect until subsequent assignments. The return value is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered, an attempt is made to define a function using <TT>-f foo=bar</TT>, an attempt is made to assign a value to a readonly variable, an attempt is made to assign a value to an array variable without using the compound assignment syntax (see <B>Arrays</B> above), one of the <I>names</I> is not a valid shell variable name, an attempt is made to turn off readonly status for a readonly variable, an attempt is made to turn off array status for an array variable, or an attempt is made to display a non-existent function with <B>-f</B>. </DL> <DT><B>dirs [-clpv</B>] [+<I>n</I>] [-<I>n</I>] <DD> Without options, displays the list of currently remembered directories. The default display is on a single line with directory names separated by spaces. Directories are added to the list with the <B>pushd</B> command; the <B>popd</B> command removes entries from the list. The current directory is always the first directory in the stack. <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-c</B> <DD> Clears the directory stack by deleting all of the entries. <DT><B>-l</B> <DD> Produces a listing using full pathnames; the default listing format uses a tilde to denote the home directory. <DT><B>-p</B> <DD> Print the directory stack with one entry per line. <DT><B>-v</B> <DD> Print the directory stack with one entry per line, prefixing each entry with its index in the stack. <DT><B>+</B><I>n</I><DD> Displays the <I>n</I>th entry counting from the left of the list shown by <B>dirs</B> when invoked without options, starting with zero. <DT><B>-</B><I>n</I><DD> Displays the <I>n</I>th entry counting from the right of the list shown by <B>dirs</B> when invoked without options, starting with zero. </DL> <P> The return value is 0 unless an invalid option is supplied or <I>n</I> indexes beyond the end of the directory stack. </DL> <DT><B>disown</B> [<B>-ar</B>] [<B>-h</B>] [<I>jobspec</I> ... | <I>pid</I> ... ]<DD> Without options, remove each <I>jobspec</I> from the table of active jobs. If <I>jobspec</I> is not present, and neither the <B>-a</B> nor the <B>-r</B> option is supplied, the <I>current job</I> is used. If the <B>-h</B> option is given, each <I>jobspec</I> is not removed from the table, but is marked so that <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGHUP</B> </FONT> is not sent to the job if the shell receives a <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGHUP</B>. </FONT> If no <I>jobspec</I> is supplied, the <B>-a</B> option means to remove or mark all jobs; the <B>-r</B> option without a <I>jobspec</I> argument restricts operation to running jobs. The return value is 0 unless a <I>jobspec</I> does not specify a valid job. <DT><B>echo</B> [<B>-neE</B>] [<I>arg</I> ...]<DD> Output the <I>arg</I>s, separated by spaces, followed by a newline. The return status is 0 unless a write error occurs. If <B>-n</B> is specified, the trailing newline is suppressed. If the <B>-e</B> option is given, interpretation of the following backslash-escaped characters is enabled. The <B>-E</B> option disables the interpretation of these escape characters, even on systems where they are interpreted by default. The <B>xpg_echo</B> shell option may be used to dynamically determine whether or not <B>echo</B> expands these escape characters by default. <B>echo</B> does not interpret <B>--</B> to mean the end of options. <B>echo</B> interprets the following escape sequences: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>\a</B> <DD> alert (bell) <DT><B>\b</B> <DD> backspace <DT><B>\c</B> <DD> suppress further output <DT><B>\e</B> <DD> <DT><B>\E</B> <DD> an escape character <DT><B>\f</B> <DD> form feed <DT><B>\n</B> <DD> new line <DT><B>\r</B> <DD> carriage return <DT><B>\t</B> <DD> horizontal tab <DT><B>\v</B> <DD> vertical tab <DT><B>\\</B> <DD> backslash <DT><B>\0</B><I>nnn</I> <DD> the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value <I>nnn</I> (zero to three octal digits) <DT><B>\x</B><I>HH</I> <DD> the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value <I>HH</I> (one or two hex digits) <DT><B>\u</B><I>HHHH</I> <DD> the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value <I>HHHH</I> (one to four hex digits) <DT><B>\U</B><I>HHHHHHHH</I> <DD> the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value <I>HHHHHHHH</I> (one to eight hex digits) </DL></DL> <DT><B>enable</B> [<B>-a</B>] [<B>-dnps</B>] [<B>-f</B> <I>filename</I>] [<I>name</I> ...]<DD> Enable and disable builtin shell commands. Disabling a builtin allows a disk command which has the same name as a shell builtin to be executed without specifying a full pathname, even though the shell normally searches for builtins before disk commands. If <B>-n</B> is used, each <I>name</I> is disabled; otherwise, <I>names</I> are enabled. For example, to use the <B>test</B> binary found via the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> instead of the shell builtin version, run <TT>enable -n test</TT>. The <B>-f</B> option means to load the new builtin command <I>name</I> from shared object <I>filename</I>, on systems that support dynamic loading. The <B>-d</B> option will delete a builtin previously loaded with <B>-f</B>. If no <I>name</I> arguments are given, or if the <B>-p</B> option is supplied, a list of shell builtins is printed. With no other option arguments, the list consists of all enabled shell builtins. If <B>-n</B> is supplied, only disabled builtins are printed. If <B>-a</B> is supplied, the list printed includes all builtins, with an indication of whether or not each is enabled. If <B>-s</B> is supplied, the output is restricted to the POSIX <I>special</I> builtins. The return value is 0 unless a <I>name</I> is not a shell builtin or there is an error loading a new builtin from a shared object. <DT><B>eval</B> [<I>arg</I> ...]<DD> The <I>arg</I>s are read and concatenated together into a single command. This command is then read and executed by the shell, and its exit status is returned as the value of <B>eval</B>. If there are no <I>args</I>, or only null arguments, <B>eval</B> returns 0. <DT><B>exec</B> [<B>-cl</B>] [<B>-a</B> <I>name</I>] [<I>command</I> [<I>arguments</I>]]<DD> If <I>command</I> is specified, it replaces the shell. No new process is created. The <I>arguments</I> become the arguments to <I>command</I>. If the <B>-l</B> option is supplied, the shell places a dash at the beginning of the zeroth argument passed to <I>command</I>. This is what <I>login</I>(1) does. The <B>-c</B> option causes <I>command</I> to be executed with an empty environment. If <B>-a</B> is supplied, the shell passes <I>name</I> as the zeroth argument to the executed command. If <I>command</I> cannot be executed for some reason, a non-interactive shell exits, unless the <B>execfail</B> shell option is enabled. In that case, it returns failure. An interactive shell returns failure if the file cannot be executed. A subshell exits unconditionally if <B>exec</B> fails. If <I>command</I> is not specified, any redirections take effect in the current shell, and the return status is 0. If there is a redirection error, the return status is 1. <DT><B>exit</B> [<I>n</I>]<DD> Cause the shell to exit with a status of <I>n</I>. If <I>n</I> is omitted, the exit status is that of the last command executed. A trap on <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EXIT</B> </FONT> is executed before the shell terminates. <DT><B>export</B> [<B>-fn</B>] [<I>name</I>[=<I>word</I>]] ...<DD> <DT><B>export -p</B> <DD> The supplied <I>names</I> are marked for automatic export to the environment of subsequently executed commands. If the <B>-f</B> option is given, the <I>names</I> refer to functions. If no <I>names</I> are given, or if the <B>-p</B> option is supplied, a list of names of all exported variables is printed. The <B>-n</B> option causes the export property to be removed from each <I>name</I>. If a variable name is followed by =<I>word</I>, the value of the variable is set to <I>word</I>. <B>export</B> returns an exit status of 0 unless an invalid option is encountered, one of the <I>names</I> is not a valid shell variable name, or <B>-f</B> is supplied with a <I>name</I> that is not a function. <DT><B>fc</B> [<B>-e</B> <I>ename</I>] [<B>-lnr</B>] [<I>first</I>] [<I>last</I>]<DD> <DT><B>fc</B> <B>-s</B> [<I>pat</I>=<I>rep</I>] [<I>cmd</I>]<DD> The first form selects a range of commands from <I>first</I> to <I>last</I> from the history list and displays or edits and re-executes them. <I>First</I> and <I>last</I> may be specified as a string (to locate the last command beginning with that string) or as a number (an index into the history list, where a negative number is used as an offset from the current command number). When listing, a <I>first</I> or <I>last</I> of 0 is equivalent to -1 and -0 is equivalent to the current command (usually the <B>fc</B> command); otherwise 0 is equivalent to -1 and -0 is invalid. If <I>last</I> is not specified, it is set to the current command for listing (so that <TT>fc -l -10</TT> prints the last 10 commands) and to <I>first</I> otherwise. If <I>first</I> is not specified, it is set to the previous command for editing and -16 for listing. <P> The <B>-n</B> option suppresses the command numbers when listing. The <B>-r</B> option reverses the order of the commands. If the <B>-l</B> option is given, the commands are listed on standard output. Otherwise, the editor given by <I>ename</I> is invoked on a file containing those commands. If <I>ename</I> is not given, the value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FCEDIT</B> </FONT> variable is used, and the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EDITOR</B> </FONT> if <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FCEDIT</B> </FONT> is not set. If neither variable is set, <I>vi</I> is used. When editing is complete, the edited commands are echoed and executed. <P> In the second form, <I>command</I> is re-executed after each instance of <I>pat</I> is replaced by <I>rep</I>. <I>Command</I> is interpreted the same as <I>first</I> above. A useful alias to use with this is <TT>r='fc -s'</TT>, so that typing <TT>r cc</TT> runs the last command beginning with <TT>cc</TT> and typing <TT>r</TT> re-executes the last command. <P> If the first form is used, the return value is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered or <I>first</I> or <I>last</I> specify history lines out of range. If the <B>-e</B> option is supplied, the return value is the value of the last command executed or failure if an error occurs with the temporary file of commands. If the second form is used, the return status is that of the command re-executed, unless <I>cmd</I> does not specify a valid history line, in which case <B>fc</B> returns failure. <DT><B>fg</B> [<I>jobspec</I>]<DD> Resume <I>jobspec</I> in the foreground, and make it the current job. If <I>jobspec</I> is not present, the shell's notion of the <I>current job</I> is used. The return value is that of the command placed into the foreground, or failure if run when job control is disabled or, when run with job control enabled, if <I>jobspec</I> does not specify a valid job or <I>jobspec</I> specifies a job that was started without job control. <DT><B>getopts</B> <I>optstring</I> <I>name</I> [<I>arg ...</I>]<DD> <B>getopts</B> is used by shell procedures to parse positional parameters. <I>optstring</I> contains the option characters to be recognized; if a character is followed by a colon, the option is expected to have an argument, which should be separated from it by white space. The colon and question mark characters may not be used as option characters. Each time it is invoked, <B>getopts</B> places the next option in the shell variable <I>name</I>, initializing <I>name</I> if it does not exist, and the index of the next argument to be processed into the variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTIND</B>. </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTIND</B> </FONT> is initialized to 1 each time the shell or a shell script is invoked. When an option requires an argument, <B>getopts</B> places that argument into the variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTARG</B>. </FONT> The shell does not reset <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTIND</B> </FONT> automatically; it must be manually reset between multiple calls to <B>getopts</B> within the same shell invocation if a new set of parameters is to be used. <P> When the end of options is encountered, <B>getopts</B> exits with a return value greater than zero. <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTIND</B> </FONT> is set to the index of the first non-option argument, and <I>name</I> is set to ?. <P> <B>getopts</B> normally parses the positional parameters, but if more arguments are supplied as <I>arg</I> values, <B>getopts</B> parses those instead. <P> <B>getopts</B> can report errors in two ways. If the first character of <I>optstring</I> is a colon, <I>silent</I> error reporting is used. In normal operation, diagnostic messages are printed when invalid options or missing option arguments are encountered. If the variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTERR</B> </FONT> is set to 0, no error messages will be displayed, even if the first character of <I>optstring</I> is not a colon. <P> If an invalid option is seen, <B>getopts</B> places ? into <I>name</I> and, if not silent, prints an error message and unsets <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTARG</B>. </FONT> If <B>getopts</B> is silent, the option character found is placed in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTARG</B> </FONT> and no diagnostic message is printed. <P> If a required argument is not found, and <B>getopts</B> is not silent, a question mark (<B>?</B>) is placed in <I>name</I>, <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTARG</B> </FONT> is unset, and a diagnostic message is printed. If <B>getopts</B> is silent, then a colon (<B>:</B>) is placed in <I>name</I> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>OPTARG</B> </FONT> is set to the option character found. <P> <B>getopts</B> returns true if an option, specified or unspecified, is found. It returns false if the end of options is encountered or an error occurs. <DT><B>hash</B> [<B>-lr</B>] [<B>-p</B> <I>filename</I>] [<B>-dt</B>] [<I>name</I>]<DD> Each time <B>hash</B> is invoked, the full pathname of the command <I>name</I> is determined by searching the directories in <B>$PATH</B> and remembered. Any previously-remembered pathname is discarded. If the <B>-p</B> option is supplied, no path search is performed, and <I>filename</I> is used as the full filename of the command. The <B>-r</B> option causes the shell to forget all remembered locations. The <B>-d</B> option causes the shell to forget the remembered location of each <I>name</I>. If the <B>-t</B> option is supplied, the full pathname to which each <I>name</I> corresponds is printed. If multiple <I>name</I> arguments are supplied with <B>-t</B>, the <I>name</I> is printed before the hashed full pathname. The <B>-l</B> option causes output to be displayed in a format that may be reused as input. If no arguments are given, or if only <B>-l</B> is supplied, information about remembered commands is printed. The return status is true unless a <I>name</I> is not found or an invalid option is supplied. <DT><B>help</B> [<B>-dms</B>] [<I>pattern</I>]<DD> Display helpful information about builtin commands. If <I>pattern</I> is specified, <B>help</B> gives detailed help on all commands matching <I>pattern</I>; otherwise help for all the builtins and shell control structures is printed. <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-d</B> <DD> Display a short description of each <I>pattern</I> <DT><B>-m</B> <DD> Display the description of each <I>pattern</I> in a manpage-like format <DT><B>-s</B> <DD> Display only a short usage synopsis for each <I>pattern</I> </DL> <P> The return status is 0 unless no command matches <I>pattern</I>. </DL> <DT><B>history [</B><I>n</I>]<DD> <DT><B>history</B> <B>-c</B><DD> <DT><B>history -d</B> <I>offset</I><DD> <DT><B>history -d</B> <I>start</I>-<I>end</I><DD> <DT><B>history</B> <B>-anrw</B> [<I>filename</I>]<DD> <DT><B>history</B> <B>-p</B> <I>arg</I> [<I>arg ...</I>]<DD> <DT><B>history</B> <B>-s</B> <I>arg</I> [<I>arg ...</I>]<DD> With no options, display the command history list with line numbers. Lines listed with a <B>*</B> have been modified. An argument of <I>n</I> lists only the last <I>n</I> lines. If the shell variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTTIMEFORMAT</B> </FONT> is set and not null, it is used as a format string for <I>strftime</I>(3) to display the time stamp associated with each displayed history entry. No intervening blank is printed between the formatted time stamp and the history line. If <I>filename</I> is supplied, it is used as the name of the history file; if not, the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTFILE</B> </FONT> is used. Options, if supplied, have the following meanings: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-c</B> <DD> Clear the history list by deleting all the entries. <DT><B>-d</B> <I>offset</I><DD> Delete the history entry at position <I>offset</I>. If <I>offset</I> is negative, it is interpreted as relative to one greater than the last history position, so negative indices count back from the end of the history, and an index of -1 refers to the current <B>history -d</B> command. <DT><B>-d</B> <I>start</I>-<I>end</I><DD> Delete the history entries between positions <I>start</I> and <I>end</I>, inclusive. Positive and negative values for <I>start</I> and <I>end</I> are interpreted as described above. <DT><B>-a</B> <DD> Append the ``new'' history lines to the history file. These are history lines entered since the beginning of the current <B>bash</B> session, but not already appended to the history file. <DT><B>-n</B> <DD> Read the history lines not already read from the history file into the current history list. These are lines appended to the history file since the beginning of the current <B>bash</B> session. <DT><B>-r</B> <DD> Read the contents of the history file and append them to the current history list. <DT><B>-w</B> <DD> Write the current history list to the history file, overwriting the history file's contents. <DT><B>-p</B> <DD> Perform history substitution on the following <I>args</I> and display the result on the standard output. Does not store the results in the history list. Each <I>arg</I> must be quoted to disable normal history expansion. <DT><B>-s</B> <DD> Store the <I>args</I> in the history list as a single entry. The last command in the history list is removed before the <I>args</I> are added. </DL> <P> If the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTTIMEFORMAT</B> </FONT> variable is set, the time stamp information associated with each history entry is written to the history file, marked with the history comment character. When the history file is read, lines beginning with the history comment character followed immediately by a digit are interpreted as timestamps for the following history entry. The return value is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered, an error occurs while reading or writing the history file, an invalid <I>offset</I> is supplied as an argument to <B>-d</B>, or the history expansion supplied as an argument to <B>-p</B> fails. </DL> <DT><B>jobs</B> [<B>-lnprs</B>] [ <I>jobspec</I> ... ]<DD> <DT><B>jobs</B> <B>-x</B> <I>command</I> [ <I>args</I> ... ]<DD> The first form lists the active jobs. The options have the following meanings: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-l</B> <DD> List process IDs in addition to the normal information. <DT><B>-n</B> <DD> Display information only about jobs that have changed status since the user was last notified of their status. <DT><B>-p</B> <DD> List only the process ID of the job's process group leader. <DT><B>-r</B> <DD> Display only running jobs. <DT><B>-s</B> <DD> Display only stopped jobs. </DL> <P> If <I>jobspec</I> is given, output is restricted to information about that job. The return status is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered or an invalid <I>jobspec</I> is supplied. <P> If the <B>-x</B> option is supplied, <B>jobs</B> replaces any <I>jobspec</I> found in <I>command</I> or <I>args</I> with the corresponding process group ID, and executes <I>command</I> passing it <I>args</I>, returning its exit status. </DL> <DT><B>kill</B> [<B>-s</B> <I>sigspec</I> | <B>-n</B> <I>signum</I> | <B>-</B><I>sigspec</I>] [<I>pid</I> | <I>jobspec</I>] ...<DD> <DT><B>kill</B> <B>-l</B>|<B>-L</B> [<I>sigspec</I> | <I>exit_status</I>]<DD> Send the signal named by <I>sigspec</I> or <I>signum</I> to the processes named by <I>pid</I> or <I>jobspec</I>. <I>sigspec</I> is either a case-insensitive signal name such as <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGKILL</B> </FONT> (with or without the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIG</B> </FONT> prefix) or a signal number; <I>signum</I> is a signal number. If <I>sigspec</I> is not present, then <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGTERM</B> </FONT> is assumed. An argument of <B>-l</B> lists the signal names. If any arguments are supplied when <B>-l</B> is given, the names of the signals corresponding to the arguments are listed, and the return status is 0. The <I>exit_status</I> argument to <B>-l</B> is a number specifying either a signal number or the exit status of a process terminated by a signal. The <B>-L</B> option is equivalent to <B>-l</B>. <B>kill</B> returns true if at least one signal was successfully sent, or false if an error occurs or an invalid option is encountered. <DT><B>let</B> <I>arg</I> [<I>arg</I> ...]<DD> Each <I>arg</I> is an arithmetic expression to be evaluated (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ARITHMETIC EVALUATION</B> </FONT> above). If the last <I>arg</I> evaluates to 0, <B>let</B> returns 1; 0 is returned otherwise. <DT><B>local</B> [<I>option</I>] [<I>name</I>[=<I>value</I>] ... | - ]<DD> For each argument, a local variable named <I>name</I> is created, and assigned <I>value</I>. The <I>option</I> can be any of the options accepted by <B>declare</B>. When <B>local</B> is used within a function, it causes the variable <I>name</I> to have a visible scope restricted to that function and its children. If <I>name</I> is -, the set of shell options is made local to the function in which <B>local</B> is invoked: shell options changed using the <B>set</B> builtin inside the function are restored to their original values when the function returns. The restore is effected as if a series of <B>set</B> commands were executed to restore the values that were in place before the function. With no operands, <B>local</B> writes a list of local variables to the standard output. It is an error to use <B>local</B> when not within a function. The return status is 0 unless <B>local</B> is used outside a function, an invalid <I>name</I> is supplied, or <I>name</I> is a readonly variable. <DT><B>logout</B> <DD> Exit a login shell. <DT><B>mapfile</B> [<B>-d</B> <I>delim</I>] [<B>-n</B> <I>count</I>] [<B>-O</B> <I>origin</I>] [<B>-s</B> <I>count</I>] [<B>-t</B>] [<B>-u</B> <I>fd</I>] [<B>-C</B> <I>callback</I>] [<B>-c</B> <I>quantum</I>] [<I>array</I>]<DD> <DT><B>readarray</B> [<B>-d</B> <I>delim</I>] [<B>-n</B> <I>count</I>] [<B>-O</B> <I>origin</I>] [<B>-s</B> <I>count</I>] [<B>-t</B>] [<B>-u</B> <I>fd</I>] [<B>-C</B> <I>callback</I>] [<B>-c</B> <I>quantum</I>] [<I>array</I>]<DD> Read lines from the standard input into the indexed array variable <I>array</I>, or from file descriptor <I>fd</I> if the <B>-u</B> option is supplied. The variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>MAPFILE</B> </FONT> is the default <I>array</I>. Options, if supplied, have the following meanings: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-d</B> <DD> The first character of <I>delim</I> is used to terminate each input line, rather than newline. If <I>delim</I> is the empty string, <B>mapfile</B> will terminate a line when it reads a NUL character. <DT><B>-n</B> <DD> Copy at most <I>count</I> lines. If <I>count</I> is 0, all lines are copied. <DT><B>-O</B> <DD> Begin assigning to <I>array</I> at index <I>origin</I>. The default index is 0. <DT><B>-s</B> <DD> Discard the first <I>count</I> lines read. <DT><B>-t</B> <DD> Remove a trailing <I>delim</I> (default newline) from each line read. <DT><B>-u</B> <DD> Read lines from file descriptor <I>fd</I> instead of the standard input. <DT><B>-C</B> <DD> Evaluate <I>callback</I> each time <I>quantum</I> lines are read. The <B>-c</B> option specifies <I>quantum</I>. <DT><B>-c</B> <DD> Specify the number of lines read between each call to <I>callback</I>. </DL> <P> If <B>-C</B> is specified without <B>-c</B>, the default quantum is 5000. When <I>callback</I> is evaluated, it is supplied the index of the next array element to be assigned and the line to be assigned to that element as additional arguments. <I>callback</I> is evaluated after the line is read but before the array element is assigned. <P> If not supplied with an explicit origin, <B>mapfile</B> will clear <I>array</I> before assigning to it. <P> <B>mapfile</B> returns successfully unless an invalid option or option argument is supplied, <I>array</I> is invalid or unassignable, or if <I>array</I> is not an indexed array. </DL> <DT><B>popd</B> [-<B>n</B>] [+<I>n</I>] [-<I>n</I>]<DD> Removes entries from the directory stack. With no arguments, removes the top directory from the stack, and performs a <B>cd</B> to the new top directory. Arguments, if supplied, have the following meanings: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-n</B> <DD> Suppresses the normal change of directory when removing directories from the stack, so that only the stack is manipulated. <DT><B>+</B><I>n</I><DD> Removes the <I>n</I>th entry counting from the left of the list shown by <B>dirs</B>, starting with zero. For example: <TT>popd +0</TT> removes the first directory, <TT>popd +1</TT> the second. <DT><B>-</B><I>n</I><DD> Removes the <I>n</I>th entry counting from the right of the list shown by <B>dirs</B>, starting with zero. For example: <TT>popd -0</TT> removes the last directory, <TT>popd -1</TT> the next to last. </DL> <P> If the <B>popd</B> command is successful, a <B>dirs</B> is performed as well, and the return status is 0. <B>popd</B> returns false if an invalid option is encountered, the directory stack is empty, a non-existent directory stack entry is specified, or the directory change fails. </DL> <DT><B>printf</B> [<B>-v</B> <I>var</I>] <I>format</I> [<I>arguments</I>]<DD> Write the formatted <I>arguments</I> to the standard output under the control of the <I>format</I>. The <B>-v</B> option causes the output to be assigned to the variable <I>var</I> rather than being printed to the standard output. <P> The <I>format</I> is a character string which contains three types of objects: plain characters, which are simply copied to standard output, character escape sequences, which are converted and copied to the standard output, and format specifications, each of which causes printing of the next successive <I>argument</I>. In addition to the standard <I>printf</I>(1) format specifications, <B>printf</B> interprets the following extensions: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>%b</B> <DD> causes <B>printf</B> to expand backslash escape sequences in the corresponding <I>argument</I> in the same way as <B>echo -e</B>. <DT><B>%q</B> <DD> causes <B>printf</B> to output the corresponding <I>argument</I> in a format that can be reused as shell input. <DT><B>%(</B><I>datefmt</I>)T <DD> causes <B>printf</B> to output the date-time string resulting from using <I>datefmt</I> as a format string for <I>strftime</I>(3). The corresponding <I>argument</I> is an integer representing the number of seconds since the epoch. Two special argument values may be used: -1 represents the current time, and -2 represents the time the shell was invoked. If no argument is specified, conversion behaves as if -1 had been given. This is an exception to the usual <B>printf</B> behavior. </DL> <P> The %b, %q, and %T directives all use the field width and precision arguments from the format specification and write that many bytes from (or use that wide a field for) the expanded argument, which usually contains more characters than the original. <P> Arguments to non-string format specifiers are treated as C constants, except that a leading plus or minus sign is allowed, and if the leading character is a single or double quote, the value is the ASCII value of the following character. <P> The <I>format</I> is reused as necessary to consume all of the <I>arguments</I>. If the <I>format</I> requires more <I>arguments</I> than are supplied, the extra format specifications behave as if a zero value or null string, as appropriate, had been supplied. The return value is zero on success, non-zero on failure. </DL> <DT><B>pushd</B> [<B>-n</B>] [+<I>n</I>] [-<I>n</I>]<DD> <DT><B>pushd</B> [<B>-n</B>] [<I>dir</I>]<DD> Adds a directory to the top of the directory stack, or rotates the stack, making the new top of the stack the current working directory. With no arguments, <B>pushd</B> exchanges the top two directories and returns 0, unless the directory stack is empty. Arguments, if supplied, have the following meanings: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-n</B> <DD> Suppresses the normal change of directory when rotating or adding directories to the stack, so that only the stack is manipulated. <DT><B>+</B><I>n</I><DD> Rotates the stack so that the <I>n</I>th directory (counting from the left of the list shown by <B>dirs</B>, starting with zero) is at the top. <DT><B>-</B><I>n</I><DD> Rotates the stack so that the <I>n</I>th directory (counting from the right of the list shown by <B>dirs</B>, starting with zero) is at the top. <DT><I>dir</I> <DD> Adds <I>dir</I> to the directory stack at the top, making it the new current working directory as if it had been supplied as the argument to the <B>cd</B> builtin. </DL> <P> If the <B>pushd</B> command is successful, a <B>dirs</B> is performed as well. If the first form is used, <B>pushd</B> returns 0 unless the cd to <I>dir</I> fails. With the second form, <B>pushd</B> returns 0 unless the directory stack is empty, a non-existent directory stack element is specified, or the directory change to the specified new current directory fails. </DL> <DT><B>pwd</B> [<B>-LP</B>]<DD> Print the absolute pathname of the current working directory. The pathname printed contains no symbolic links if the <B>-P</B> option is supplied or the <B>-o physical</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin command is enabled. If the <B>-L</B> option is used, the pathname printed may contain symbolic links. The return status is 0 unless an error occurs while reading the name of the current directory or an invalid option is supplied. <DT><B>read</B> [<B>-ers</B>] [<B>-a</B> <I>aname</I>] [<B>-d</B> <I>delim</I>] [<B>-i</B> <I>text</I>] [<B>-n</B> <I>nchars</I>] [<B>-N</B> <I>nchars</I>] [<B>-p</B> <I>prompt</I>] [<B>-t</B> <I>timeout</I>] [<B>-u</B> <I>fd</I>] [<I>name</I> ...]<DD> One line is read from the standard input, or from the file descriptor <I>fd</I> supplied as an argument to the <B>-u</B> option, split into words as described above under <B>Word Splitting</B>, and the first word is assigned to the first <I>name</I>, the second word to the second <I>name</I>, and so on. If there are more words than names, the remaining words and their intervening delimiters are assigned to the last <I>name</I>. If there are fewer words read from the input stream than names, the remaining names are assigned empty values. The characters in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>IFS</B> </FONT> are used to split the line into words using the same rules the shell uses for expansion (described above under <B>Word Splitting</B>). The backslash character (<B>\</B>) may be used to remove any special meaning for the next character read and for line continuation. Options, if supplied, have the following meanings: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-a </B><I>aname</I> <DD> The words are assigned to sequential indices of the array variable <I>aname</I>, starting at 0. <I>aname</I> is unset before any new values are assigned. Other <I>name</I> arguments are ignored. <DT><B>-d </B><I>delim</I> <DD> The first character of <I>delim</I> is used to terminate the input line, rather than newline. If <I>delim</I> is the empty string, <B>read</B> will terminate a line when it reads a NUL character. <DT><B>-e</B> <DD> If the standard input is coming from a terminal, <B>readline</B> (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE</B> </FONT> above) is used to obtain the line. Readline uses the current (or default, if line editing was not previously active) editing settings, but uses Readline's default filename completion. <DT><B>-i </B><I>text</I> <DD> If <B>readline</B> is being used to read the line, <I>text</I> is placed into the editing buffer before editing begins. <DT><B>-n </B><I>nchars</I> <DD> <B>read</B> returns after reading <I>nchars</I> characters rather than waiting for a complete line of input, but honors a delimiter if fewer than <I>nchars</I> characters are read before the delimiter. <DT><B>-N </B><I>nchars</I> <DD> <B>read</B> returns after reading exactly <I>nchars</I> characters rather than waiting for a complete line of input, unless EOF is encountered or <B>read</B> times out. Delimiter characters encountered in the input are not treated specially and do not cause <B>read</B> to return until <I>nchars</I> characters are read. The result is not split on the characters in <B>IFS</B>; the intent is that the variable is assigned exactly the characters read (with the exception of backslash; see the <B>-r</B> option below). <DT><B>-p </B><I>prompt</I> <DD> Display <I>prompt</I> on standard error, without a trailing newline, before attempting to read any input. The prompt is displayed only if input is coming from a terminal. <DT><B>-r</B> <DD> Backslash does not act as an escape character. The backslash is considered to be part of the line. In particular, a backslash-newline pair may not then be used as a line continuation. <DT><B>-s</B> <DD> Silent mode. If input is coming from a terminal, characters are not echoed. <DT><B>-t </B><I>timeout</I> <DD> Cause <B>read</B> to time out and return failure if a complete line of input (or a specified number of characters) is not read within <I>timeout</I> seconds. <I>timeout</I> may be a decimal number with a fractional portion following the decimal point. This option is only effective if <B>read</B> is reading input from a terminal, pipe, or other special file; it has no effect when reading from regular files. If <B>read</B> times out, <B>read</B> saves any partial input read into the specified variable <I>name</I>. If <I>timeout</I> is 0, <B>read</B> returns immediately, without trying to read any data. The exit status is 0 if input is available on the specified file descriptor, non-zero otherwise. The exit status is greater than 128 if the timeout is exceeded. <DT><B>-u </B><I>fd</I> <DD> Read input from file descriptor <I>fd</I>. </DL> <P> If no <I>names</I> are supplied, the line read, without the ending delimiter but otherwise unmodified, is assigned to the variable <FONT SIZE=-1><B>REPLY</B>. </FONT> The exit status is zero, unless end-of-file is encountered, <B>read</B> times out (in which case the status is greater than 128), a variable assignment error (such as assigning to a readonly variable) occurs, or an invalid file descriptor is supplied as the argument to <B>-u</B>. </DL> <DT><B>readonly</B> [<B>-aAf</B>] [<B>-p</B>] [<I>name</I>[=<I>word</I>] ...]<DD> The given <I>names</I> are marked readonly; the values of these <I>names</I> may not be changed by subsequent assignment. If the <B>-f</B> option is supplied, the functions corresponding to the <I>names</I> are so marked. The <B>-a</B> option restricts the variables to indexed arrays; the <B>-A</B> option restricts the variables to associative arrays. If both options are supplied, <B>-A</B> takes precedence. If no <I>name</I> arguments are given, or if the <B>-p</B> option is supplied, a list of all readonly names is printed. The other options may be used to restrict the output to a subset of the set of readonly names. The <B>-p</B> option causes output to be displayed in a format that may be reused as input. If a variable name is followed by =<I>word</I>, the value of the variable is set to <I>word</I>. The return status is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered, one of the <I>names</I> is not a valid shell variable name, or <B>-f</B> is supplied with a <I>name</I> that is not a function. <DT><B>return</B> [<I>n</I>]<DD> Causes a function to stop executing and return the value specified by <I>n</I> to its caller. If <I>n</I> is omitted, the return status is that of the last command executed in the function body. If <B>return</B> is executed by a trap handler, the last command used to determine the status is the last command executed before the trap handler. If <B>return</B> is executed during a <B>DEBUG</B> trap, the last command used to determine the status is the last command executed by the trap handler before <B>return</B> was invoked. If <B>return</B> is used outside a function, but during execution of a script by the <B>.</B> (<B>source</B>) command, it causes the shell to stop executing that script and return either <I>n</I> or the exit status of the last command executed within the script as the exit status of the script. If <I>n</I> is supplied, the return value is its least significant 8 bits. The return status is non-zero if <B>return</B> is supplied a non-numeric argument, or is used outside a function and not during execution of a script by <B>.</B> or <B>source</B>. Any command associated with the <B>RETURN</B> trap is executed before execution resumes after the function or script. <DT><B>set</B> [<B>--abefhkmnptuvxBCEHPT</B>] [<B>-o</B> <I>option-name</I>] [<I>arg</I> ...]<DD> <DT><B>set</B> [<B>+abefhkmnptuvxBCEHPT</B>] [<B>+o</B> <I>option-name</I>] [<I>arg</I> ...]<DD> Without options, the name and value of each shell variable are displayed in a format that can be reused as input for setting or resetting the currently-set variables. Read-only variables cannot be reset. In <I>posix mode</I>, only shell variables are listed. The output is sorted according to the current locale. When options are specified, they set or unset shell attributes. Any arguments remaining after option processing are treated as values for the positional parameters and are assigned, in order, to <B>$1</B>, <B>$2</B>, <B>...</B> <B>$</B><I>n</I>. Options, if specified, have the following meanings: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-a</B> <DD> Each variable or function that is created or modified is given the export attribute and marked for export to the environment of subsequent commands. <DT><B>-b</B> <DD> Report the status of terminated background jobs immediately, rather than before the next primary prompt. This is effective only when job control is enabled. <DT><B>-e</B> <DD> Exit immediately if a <I>pipeline</I> (which may consist of a single <I>simple command</I>), a <I>list</I>, or a <I>compound command</I> (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL GRAMMAR</B> </FONT> above), exits with a non-zero status. The shell does not exit if the command that fails is part of the command list immediately following a <B>while</B> or <B>until</B> keyword, part of the test following the <B>if</B> or <B>elif</B> reserved words, part of any command executed in a <B>&&</B> or <B>||</B> list except the command following the final <B>&&</B> or <B>||</B>, any command in a pipeline but the last, or if the command's return value is being inverted with <B>!</B>. If a compound command other than a subshell returns a non-zero status because a command failed while <B>-e</B> was being ignored, the shell does not exit. A trap on <B>ERR</B>, if set, is executed before the shell exits. This option applies to the shell environment and each subshell environment separately (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMMAND EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT</B> </FONT> above), and may cause subshells to exit before executing all the commands in the subshell. <P> If a compound command or shell function executes in a context where <B>-e</B> is being ignored, none of the commands executed within the compound command or function body will be affected by the <B>-e</B> setting, even if <B>-e</B> is set and a command returns a failure status. If a compound command or shell function sets <B>-e</B> while executing in a context where <B>-e</B> is ignored, that setting will not have any effect until the compound command or the command containing the function call completes. <DT><B>-f</B> <DD> Disable pathname expansion. <DT><B>-h</B> <DD> Remember the location of commands as they are looked up for execution. This is enabled by default. <DT><B>-k</B> <DD> All arguments in the form of assignment statements are placed in the environment for a command, not just those that precede the command name. <DT><B>-m</B> <DD> Monitor mode. Job control is enabled. This option is on by default for interactive shells on systems that support it (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>JOB CONTROL</B> </FONT> above). All processes run in a separate process group. When a background job completes, the shell prints a line containing its exit status. <DT><B>-n</B> <DD> Read commands but do not execute them. This may be used to check a shell script for syntax errors. This is ignored by interactive shells. <DT><B>-o </B><I>option-name</I> <DD> The <I>option-name</I> can be one of the following: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>allexport</B> <DD> Same as <B>-a</B>. <DT><B>braceexpand</B> <DD> Same as <B>-B</B>. <DT><B>emacs</B> <DD> Use an emacs-style command line editing interface. This is enabled by default when the shell is interactive, unless the shell is started with the <B>--noediting</B> option. This also affects the editing interface used for <B>read -e</B>. <DT><B>errexit</B> <DD> Same as <B>-e</B>. <DT><B>errtrace</B> <DD> Same as <B>-E</B>. <DT><B>functrace</B> <DD> Same as <B>-T</B>. <DT><B>hashall</B> <DD> Same as <B>-h</B>. <DT><B>histexpand</B> <DD> Same as <B>-H</B>. <DT><B>history</B> <DD> Enable command history, as described above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY</B>. </FONT> This option is on by default in interactive shells. <DT><B>ignoreeof</B> <DD> The effect is as if the shell command <TT>IGNOREEOF=10</TT> had been executed (see <B>Shell Variables</B> above). <DT><B>keyword</B> <DD> Same as <B>-k</B>. <DT><B>monitor</B> <DD> Same as <B>-m</B>. <DT><B>noclobber</B> <DD> Same as <B>-C</B>. <DT><B>noexec</B> <DD> Same as <B>-n</B>. <DT><B>noglob</B> <DD> Same as <B>-f</B>. <DT><B>nolog</B> <DD> Currently ignored. <DT><B>notify</B> <DD> Same as <B>-b</B>. <DT><B>nounset</B> <DD> Same as <B>-u</B>. <DT><B>onecmd</B> <DD> Same as <B>-t</B>. <DT><B>physical</B> <DD> Same as <B>-P</B>. <DT><B>pipefail</B> <DD> If set, the return value of a pipeline is the value of the last (rightmost) command to exit with a non-zero status, or zero if all commands in the pipeline exit successfully. This option is disabled by default. <DT><B>posix</B> <DD> Change the behavior of <B>bash</B> where the default operation differs from the POSIX standard to match the standard (<I>posix mode</I>). See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SEE ALSO</B> </FONT> below for a reference to a document that details how posix mode affects bash's behavior. <DT><B>privileged</B> <DD> Same as <B>-p</B>. <DT><B>verbose</B> <DD> Same as <B>-v</B>. <DT><B>vi</B> <DD> Use a vi-style command line editing interface. This also affects the editing interface used for <B>read -e</B>. <DT><B>xtrace</B> <DD> Same as <B>-x</B>. <P> </DL> <P> If <B>-o</B> is supplied with no <I>option-name</I>, the values of the current options are printed. If <B>+o</B> is supplied with no <I>option-name</I>, a series of <B>set</B> commands to recreate the current option settings is displayed on the standard output. </DL> <DT><B>-p</B> <DD> Turn on <I>privileged</I> mode. In this mode, the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$ENV</B> </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$BASH_ENV</B> </FONT> files are not processed, shell functions are not inherited from the environment, and the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELLOPTS</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASHOPTS</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CDPATH</B>, </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GLOBIGNORE</B> </FONT> variables, if they appear in the environment, are ignored. If the shell is started with the effective user (group) id not equal to the real user (group) id, and the <B>-p</B> option is not supplied, these actions are taken and the effective user id is set to the real user id. If the <B>-p</B> option is supplied at startup, the effective user id is not reset. Turning this option off causes the effective user and group ids to be set to the real user and group ids. <DT><B>-t</B> <DD> Exit after reading and executing one command. <DT><B>-u</B> <DD> Treat unset variables and parameters other than the special parameters "@" and "*" as an error when performing parameter expansion. If expansion is attempted on an unset variable or parameter, the shell prints an error message, and, if not interactive, exits with a non-zero status. <DT><B>-v</B> <DD> Print shell input lines as they are read. <DT><B>-x</B> <DD> After expanding each <I>simple command</I>, <B>for</B> command, <B>case</B> command, <B>select</B> command, or arithmetic <B>for</B> command, display the expanded value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PS4</B>, </FONT> followed by the command and its expanded arguments or associated word list. <DT><B>-B</B> <DD> The shell performs brace expansion (see <B>Brace Expansion</B> above). This is on by default. <DT><B>-C</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> does not overwrite an existing file with the <B>></B>, <B>>&</B>, and <B><></B> redirection operators. This may be overridden when creating output files by using the redirection operator <B>>|</B> instead of <B>></B>. <DT><B>-E</B> <DD> If set, any trap on <B>ERR</B> is inherited by shell functions, command substitutions, and commands executed in a subshell environment. The <B>ERR</B> trap is normally not inherited in such cases. <DT><B>-H</B> <DD> Enable <B>!</B> style history substitution. This option is on by default when the shell is interactive. <DT><B>-P</B> <DD> If set, the shell does not resolve symbolic links when executing commands such as <B>cd</B> that change the current working directory. It uses the physical directory structure instead. By default, <B>bash</B> follows the logical chain of directories when performing commands which change the current directory. <DT><B>-T</B> <DD> If set, any traps on <B>DEBUG</B> and <B>RETURN</B> are inherited by shell functions, command substitutions, and commands executed in a subshell environment. The <B>DEBUG</B> and <B>RETURN</B> traps are normally not inherited in such cases. <DT><B>--</B> <DD> If no arguments follow this option, then the positional parameters are unset. Otherwise, the positional parameters are set to the <I>arg</I>s, even if some of them begin with a <B>-</B>. <DT><B>-</B> <DD> Signal the end of options, cause all remaining <I>arg</I>s to be assigned to the positional parameters. The <B>-x</B> and <B>-v</B> options are turned off. If there are no <I>arg</I>s, the positional parameters remain unchanged. </DL> <P> The options are off by default unless otherwise noted. Using + rather than - causes these options to be turned off. The options can also be specified as arguments to an invocation of the shell. The current set of options may be found in <B>$-</B>. The return status is always true unless an invalid option is encountered. </DL> <DT><B>shift</B> [<I>n</I>]<DD> The positional parameters from <I>n</I>+1 ... are renamed to <B>$1</B> <B>....</B> Parameters represented by the numbers <B>$#</B> down to <B>$#</B>-<I>n</I>+1 are unset. <I>n</I> must be a non-negative number less than or equal to <B>$#</B>. If <I>n</I> is 0, no parameters are changed. If <I>n</I> is not given, it is assumed to be 1. If <I>n</I> is greater than <B>$#</B>, the positional parameters are not changed. The return status is greater than zero if <I>n</I> is greater than <B>$#</B> or less than zero; otherwise 0. <DT><B>shopt</B> [<B>-pqsu</B>] [<B>-o</B>] [<I>optname</I> ...]<DD> Toggle the values of settings controlling optional shell behavior. The settings can be either those listed below, or, if the <B>-o</B> option is used, those available with the <B>-o</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin command. With no options, or with the <B>-p</B> option, a list of all settable options is displayed, with an indication of whether or not each is set; if <I>optnames</I> are supplied, the output is restricted to those options. The <B>-p</B> option causes output to be displayed in a form that may be reused as input. Other options have the following meanings: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-s</B> <DD> Enable (set) each <I>optname</I>. <DT><B>-u</B> <DD> Disable (unset) each <I>optname</I>. <DT><B>-q</B> <DD> Suppresses normal output (quiet mode); the return status indicates whether the <I>optname</I> is set or unset. If multiple <I>optname</I> arguments are given with <B>-q</B>, the return status is zero if all <I>optnames</I> are enabled; non-zero otherwise. <DT><B>-o</B> <DD> Restricts the values of <I>optname</I> to be those defined for the <B>-o</B> option to the <B>set</B> builtin. </DL> <P> If either <B>-s</B> or <B>-u</B> is used with no <I>optname</I> arguments, <B>shopt</B> shows only those options which are set or unset, respectively. Unless otherwise noted, the <B>shopt</B> options are disabled (unset) by default. <P> The return status when listing options is zero if all <I>optnames</I> are enabled, non-zero otherwise. When setting or unsetting options, the return status is zero unless an <I>optname</I> is not a valid shell option. <P> The list of <B>shopt</B> options is: <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>assoc_expand_once</B> <DD> If set, the shell suppresses multiple evaluation of associative array subscripts during arithmetic expression evaluation, while executing builtins that can perform variable assignments, and while executing builtins that perform array dereferencing. <DT><B>autocd</B> <DD> If set, a command name that is the name of a directory is executed as if it were the argument to the <B>cd</B> command. This option is only used by interactive shells. <DT><B>cdable_vars</B> <DD> If set, an argument to the <B>cd</B> builtin command that is not a directory is assumed to be the name of a variable whose value is the directory to change to. <DT><B>cdspell</B> <DD> If set, minor errors in the spelling of a directory component in a <B>cd</B> command will be corrected. The errors checked for are transposed characters, a missing character, and one character too many. If a correction is found, the corrected filename is printed, and the command proceeds. This option is only used by interactive shells. <DT><B>checkhash</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> checks that a command found in the hash table exists before trying to execute it. If a hashed command no longer exists, a normal path search is performed. <DT><B>checkjobs</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> lists the status of any stopped and running jobs before exiting an interactive shell. If any jobs are running, this causes the exit to be deferred until a second exit is attempted without an intervening command (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>JOB CONTROL</B> </FONT> above). The shell always postpones exiting if any jobs are stopped. <DT><B>checkwinsize</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> checks the window size after each external (non-builtin) command and, if necessary, updates the values of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>LINES</B> </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COLUMNS</B>. </FONT> This option is enabled by default. <DT><B>cmdhist</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> attempts to save all lines of a multiple-line command in the same history entry. This allows easy re-editing of multi-line commands. This option is enabled by default, but only has an effect if command history is enabled, as described above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTORY</B>. </FONT> <DT><B>compat31</B> <DD> <DT><B>compat32</B> <DD> <DT><B>compat40</B> <DD> <DT><B>compat41</B> <DD> <DT><B>compat42</B> <DD> <DT><B>compat43</B> <DD> <DT><B>compat44</B> <DD> These control aspects of the shell's compatibility mode (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL COMPATIBILITY MODE</B> </FONT> below). <DT><B>complete_fullquote</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> quotes all shell metacharacters in filenames and directory names when performing completion. If not set, <B>bash</B> removes metacharacters such as the dollar sign from the set of characters that will be quoted in completed filenames when these metacharacters appear in shell variable references in words to be completed. This means that dollar signs in variable names that expand to directories will not be quoted; however, any dollar signs appearing in filenames will not be quoted, either. This is active only when bash is using backslashes to quote completed filenames. This variable is set by default, which is the default bash behavior in versions through 4.2. <DT><B>direxpand</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> replaces directory names with the results of word expansion when performing filename completion. This changes the contents of the readline editing buffer. If not set, <B>bash</B> attempts to preserve what the user typed. <DT><B>dirspell</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> attempts spelling correction on directory names during word completion if the directory name initially supplied does not exist. <DT><B>dotglob</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> includes filenames beginning with a `.' in the results of pathname expansion. The filenames <B>``.''</B> and <B>``..''</B> must always be matched explicitly, even if <B>dotglob</B> is set. <DT><B>execfail</B> <DD> If set, a non-interactive shell will not exit if it cannot execute the file specified as an argument to the <B>exec</B> builtin command. An interactive shell does not exit if <B>exec</B> fails. <DT><B>expand_aliases</B> <DD> If set, aliases are expanded as described above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ALIASES</B>. </FONT> This option is enabled by default for interactive shells. <DT><B>extdebug</B> <DD> If set at shell invocation, or in a shell startup file, arrange to execute the debugger profile before the shell starts, identical to the <B>--debugger</B> option. If set after invocation, behavior intended for use by debuggers is enabled: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>1.</B> <DD> The <B>-F</B> option to the <B>declare</B> builtin displays the source file name and line number corresponding to each function name supplied as an argument. <DT><B>2.</B> <DD> If the command run by the <B>DEBUG</B> trap returns a non-zero value, the next command is skipped and not executed. <DT><B>3.</B> <DD> If the command run by the <B>DEBUG</B> trap returns a value of 2, and the shell is executing in a subroutine (a shell function or a shell script executed by the <B>.</B> or <B>source</B> builtins), the shell simulates a call to <B>return</B>. <DT><B>4.</B> <DD> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ARGC</B> </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ARGV</B> </FONT> are updated as described in their descriptions above. <DT><B>5.</B> <DD> Function tracing is enabled: command substitution, shell functions, and subshells invoked with <B>(</B> <I>command</I> <B>)</B> inherit the <B>DEBUG</B> and <B>RETURN</B> traps. <DT><B>6.</B> <DD> Error tracing is enabled: command substitution, shell functions, and subshells invoked with <B>(</B> <I>command</I> <B>)</B> inherit the <B>ERR</B> trap. </DL></DL> <DT><B>extglob</B> <DD> If set, the extended pattern matching features described above under <B>Pathname Expansion</B> are enabled. <DT><B>extquote</B> <DD> If set, <B>$</B>aq<I>string</I>aq and <B>$</B>"<I>string</I>" quoting is performed within <B>${</B><I>parameter</I><B>}</B> expansions enclosed in double quotes. This option is enabled by default. <DT><B>failglob</B> <DD> If set, patterns which fail to match filenames during pathname expansion result in an expansion error. <DT><B>force_fignore</B> <DD> If set, the suffixes specified by the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FIGNORE</B> </FONT> shell variable cause words to be ignored when performing word completion even if the ignored words are the only possible completions. See <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL VARIABLES</B></FONT> above for a description of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FIGNORE</B>. </FONT> This option is enabled by default. <DT><B>globasciiranges</B> <DD> If set, range expressions used in pattern matching bracket expressions (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>Pattern Matching</B> </FONT> above) behave as if in the traditional C locale when performing comparisons. That is, the current locale's collating sequence is not taken into account, so <B>b</B> will not collate between <B>A</B> and <B>B</B>, and upper-case and lower-case ASCII characters will collate together. <DT><B>globstar</B> <DD> If set, the pattern <B>**</B> used in a pathname expansion context will match all files and zero or more directories and subdirectories. If the pattern is followed by a <B>/</B>, only directories and subdirectories match. <DT><B>gnu_errfmt</B> <DD> If set, shell error messages are written in the standard GNU error message format. <DT><B>histappend</B> <DD> If set, the history list is appended to the file named by the value of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTFILE</B> </FONT> variable when the shell exits, rather than overwriting the file. <DT><B>histreedit</B> <DD> If set, and <B>readline</B> is being used, a user is given the opportunity to re-edit a failed history substitution. <DT><B>histverify</B> <DD> If set, and <B>readline</B> is being used, the results of history substitution are not immediately passed to the shell parser. Instead, the resulting line is loaded into the <B>readline</B> editing buffer, allowing further modification. <DT><B>hostcomplete</B> <DD> If set, and <B>readline</B> is being used, <B>bash</B> will attempt to perform hostname completion when a word containing a <B>@</B> is being completed (see <B>Completing</B> under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>READLINE</B> </FONT> above). This is enabled by default. <DT><B>huponexit</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> will send <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGHUP</B> </FONT> to all jobs when an interactive login shell exits. <DT><B>inherit_errexit</B> <DD> If set, command substitution inherits the value of the <B>errexit</B> option, instead of unsetting it in the subshell environment. This option is enabled when <I>posix mode</I> is enabled. <DT><B>interactive_comments</B> <DD> If set, allow a word beginning with <B>#</B> to cause that word and all remaining characters on that line to be ignored in an interactive shell (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMMENTS</B> </FONT> above). This option is enabled by default. <DT><B>lastpipe</B> <DD> If set, and job control is not active, the shell runs the last command of a pipeline not executed in the background in the current shell environment. <DT><B>lithist</B> <DD> If set, and the <B>cmdhist</B> option is enabled, multi-line commands are saved to the history with embedded newlines rather than using semicolon separators where possible. <DT><B>localvar_inherit</B> <DD> If set, local variables inherit the value and attributes of a variable of the same name that exists at a previous scope before any new value is assigned. The nameref attribute is not inherited. <DT><B>localvar_unset</B> <DD> If set, calling <B>unset</B> on local variables in previous function scopes marks them so subsequent lookups find them unset until that function returns. This is identical to the behavior of unsetting local variables at the current function scope. <DT><B>login_shell</B> <DD> The shell sets this option if it is started as a login shell (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>INVOCATION</B> </FONT> above). The value may not be changed. <DT><B>mailwarn</B> <DD> If set, and a file that <B>bash</B> is checking for mail has been accessed since the last time it was checked, the message ``The mail in <I>mailfile</I> has been read'' is displayed. <DT><B>no_empty_cmd_completion</B> <DD> If set, and <B>readline</B> is being used, <B>bash</B> will not attempt to search the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> for possible completions when completion is attempted on an empty line. <DT><B>nocaseglob</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> matches filenames in a case-insensitive fashion when performing pathname expansion (see <B>Pathname Expansion</B> above). <DT><B>nocasematch</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> matches patterns in a case-insensitive fashion when performing matching while executing <B>case</B> or <B>[[</B> conditional commands, when performing pattern substitution word expansions, or when filtering possible completions as part of programmable completion. <DT><B>nullglob</B> <DD> If set, <B>bash</B> allows patterns which match no files (see <B>Pathname Expansion</B> above) to expand to a null string, rather than themselves. <DT><B>progcomp</B> <DD> If set, the programmable completion facilities (see <B>Programmable Completion</B> above) are enabled. This option is enabled by default. <DT><B>progcomp_alias</B> <DD> If set, and programmable completion is enabled, <B>bash</B> treats a command name that doesn't have any completions as a possible alias and attempts alias expansion. If it has an alias, <B>bash</B> attempts programmable completion using the command word resulting from the expanded alias. <DT><B>promptvars</B> <DD> If set, prompt strings undergo parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal after being expanded as described in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PROMPTING</B> </FONT> above. This option is enabled by default. <DT><B>restricted_shell</B> <DD> The shell sets this option if it is started in restricted mode (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>RESTRICTED SHELL</B> </FONT> below). The value may not be changed. This is not reset when the startup files are executed, allowing the startup files to discover whether or not a shell is restricted. <DT><B>shift_verbose</B> <DD> If set, the <B>shift</B> builtin prints an error message when the shift count exceeds the number of positional parameters. <DT><B>sourcepath</B> <DD> If set, the <B>source</B> (<B>.</B>) builtin uses the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> to find the directory containing the file supplied as an argument. This option is enabled by default. <DT><B>xpg_echo</B> <DD> If set, the <B>echo</B> builtin expands backslash-escape sequences by default. </DL></DL> <DT><B>suspend</B> [<B>-f</B>]<DD> Suspend the execution of this shell until it receives a <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIGCONT</B> </FONT> signal. A login shell cannot be suspended; the <B>-f</B> option can be used to override this and force the suspension. The return status is 0 unless the shell is a login shell and <B>-f</B> is not supplied, or if job control is not enabled. <DT><B>test</B> <I>expr</I><DD> <DT><B>[</B> <I>expr</I> <B>]</B><DD> Return a status of 0 (true) or 1 (false) depending on the evaluation of the conditional expression <I>expr</I>. Each operator and operand must be a separate argument. Expressions are composed of the primaries described above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS</B>. </FONT> <B>test</B> does not accept any options, nor does it accept and ignore an argument of <B>--</B> as signifying the end of options. <P> Expressions may be combined using the following operators, listed in decreasing order of precedence. The evaluation depends on the number of arguments; see below. Operator precedence is used when there are five or more arguments. <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>! </B><I>expr</I> <DD> True if <I>expr</I> is false. <DT><B>( </B><I>expr</I> ) <DD> Returns the value of <I>expr</I>. This may be used to override the normal precedence of operators. <DT><I>expr1</I> -<B>a</B> <I>expr2</I><DD> True if both <I>expr1</I> and <I>expr2</I> are true. <DT><I>expr1</I> -<B>o</B> <I>expr2</I><DD> True if either <I>expr1</I> or <I>expr2</I> is true. </DL> <P> <B>test</B> and <B>[</B> evaluate conditional expressions using a set of rules based on the number of arguments. <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT>0 arguments<DD> The expression is false. <DT>1 argument<DD> The expression is true if and only if the argument is not null. <DT>2 arguments<DD> If the first argument is <B>!</B>, the expression is true if and only if the second argument is null. If the first argument is one of the unary conditional operators listed above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS</B>, </FONT> the expression is true if the unary test is true. If the first argument is not a valid unary conditional operator, the expression is false. <DT>3 arguments<DD> The following conditions are applied in the order listed. If the second argument is one of the binary conditional operators listed above under <FONT SIZE=-1><B>CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS</B>, </FONT> the result of the expression is the result of the binary test using the first and third arguments as operands. The <B>-a</B> and <B>-o</B> operators are considered binary operators when there are three arguments. If the first argument is <B>!</B>, the value is the negation of the two-argument test using the second and third arguments. If the first argument is exactly <B>(</B> and the third argument is exactly <B>)</B>, the result is the one-argument test of the second argument. Otherwise, the expression is false. <DT>4 arguments<DD> If the first argument is <B>!</B>, the result is the negation of the three-argument expression composed of the remaining arguments. Otherwise, the expression is parsed and evaluated according to precedence using the rules listed above. <DT>5 or more arguments<DD> The expression is parsed and evaluated according to precedence using the rules listed above. <P> </DL> <P> When used with <B>test</B> or <B>[</B>, the <B><</B> and <B>></B> operators sort lexicographically using ASCII ordering. </DL> <DT><B>times</B> <DD> Print the accumulated user and system times for the shell and for processes run from the shell. The return status is 0. <DT><B>trap</B> [<B>-lp</B>] [[<I>arg</I>] <I>sigspec</I> ...]<DD> The command <I>arg</I> is to be read and executed when the shell receives signal(s) <I>sigspec</I>. If <I>arg</I> is absent (and there is a single <I>sigspec</I>) or <B>-</B>, each specified signal is reset to its original disposition (the value it had upon entrance to the shell). If <I>arg</I> is the null string the signal specified by each <I>sigspec</I> is ignored by the shell and by the commands it invokes. If <I>arg</I> is not present and <B>-p</B> has been supplied, then the trap commands associated with each <I>sigspec</I> are displayed. If no arguments are supplied or if only <B>-p</B> is given, <B>trap</B> prints the list of commands associated with each signal. The <B>-l</B> option causes the shell to print a list of signal names and their corresponding numbers. Each <I>sigspec</I> is either a signal name defined in <<I>signal.h</I>>, or a signal number. Signal names are case insensitive and the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SIG</B> </FONT> prefix is optional. <P> If a <I>sigspec</I> is <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EXIT</B> </FONT> (0) the command <I>arg</I> is executed on exit from the shell. If a <I>sigspec</I> is <FONT SIZE=-1><B>DEBUG</B>, </FONT> the command <I>arg</I> is executed before every <I>simple command</I>, <I>for</I> command, <I>case</I> command, <I>select</I> command, every arithmetic <I>for</I> command, and before the first command executes in a shell function (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL GRAMMAR</B> </FONT> above). Refer to the description of the <B>extdebug</B> option to the <B>shopt</B> builtin for details of its effect on the <B>DEBUG</B> trap. If a <I>sigspec</I> is <FONT SIZE=-1><B>RETURN</B>, </FONT> the command <I>arg</I> is executed each time a shell function or a script executed with the <B>.</B> or <B>source</B> builtins finishes executing. <P> If a <I>sigspec</I> is <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ERR</B>, </FONT> the command <I>arg</I> is executed whenever a pipeline (which may consist of a single simple command), a list, or a compound command returns a non-zero exit status, subject to the following conditions. The <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ERR</B> </FONT> trap is not executed if the failed command is part of the command list immediately following a <B>while</B> or <B>until</B> keyword, part of the test in an <I>if</I> statement, part of a command executed in a <B>&&</B> or <B>||</B> list except the command following the final <B>&&</B> or <B>||</B>, any command in a pipeline but the last, or if the command's return value is being inverted using <B>!</B>. These are the same conditions obeyed by the <B>errexit</B> (<B>-e</B>) option. <P> Signals ignored upon entry to the shell cannot be trapped or reset. Trapped signals that are not being ignored are reset to their original values in a subshell or subshell environment when one is created. The return status is false if any <I>sigspec</I> is invalid; otherwise <B>trap</B> returns true. <DT><B>type</B> [<B>-aftpP</B>] <I>name</I> [<I>name</I> ...]<DD> With no options, indicate how each <I>name</I> would be interpreted if used as a command name. If the <B>-t</B> option is used, <B>type</B> prints a string which is one of <I>alias</I>, <I>keyword</I>, <I>function</I>, <I>builtin</I>, or <I>file</I> if <I>name</I> is an alias, shell reserved word, function, builtin, or disk file, respectively. If the <I>name</I> is not found, then nothing is printed, and an exit status of false is returned. If the <B>-p</B> option is used, <B>type</B> either returns the name of the disk file that would be executed if <I>name</I> were specified as a command name, or nothing if <TT>type -t name</TT> would not return <I>file</I>. The <B>-P</B> option forces a <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B> </FONT> search for each <I>name</I>, even if <TT>type -t name</TT> would not return <I>file</I>. If a command is hashed, <B>-p</B> and <B>-P</B> print the hashed value, which is not necessarily the file that appears first in <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B>. </FONT> If the <B>-a</B> option is used, <B>type</B> prints all of the places that contain an executable named <I>name</I>. This includes aliases and functions, if and only if the <B>-p</B> option is not also used. The table of hashed commands is not consulted when using <B>-a</B>. The <B>-f</B> option suppresses shell function lookup, as with the <B>command</B> builtin. <B>type</B> returns true if all of the arguments are found, false if any are not found. <DT><B>ulimit</B> [<B>-HS</B>] <B>-a</B><DD> <DT><B>ulimit</B> [<B>-HS</B>] [<B>-bcdefiklmnpqrstuvxPRT</B> [<I>limit</I>]]<DD> Provides control over the resources available to the shell and to processes started by it, on systems that allow such control. The <B>-H</B> and <B>-S</B> options specify that the hard or soft limit is set for the given resource. A hard limit cannot be increased by a non-root user once it is set; a soft limit may be increased up to the value of the hard limit. If neither <B>-H</B> nor <B>-S</B> is specified, both the soft and hard limits are set. The value of <I>limit</I> can be a number in the unit specified for the resource or one of the special values <B>hard</B>, <B>soft</B>, or <B>unlimited</B>, which stand for the current hard limit, the current soft limit, and no limit, respectively. If <I>limit</I> is omitted, the current value of the soft limit of the resource is printed, unless the <B>-H</B> option is given. When more than one resource is specified, the limit name and unit, if appropriate, are printed before the value. Other options are interpreted as follows: <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>-a</B> <DD> All current limits are reported; no limits are set <DT><B>-b</B> <DD> The maximum socket buffer size <DT><B>-c</B> <DD> The maximum size of core files created <DT><B>-d</B> <DD> The maximum size of a process's data segment <DT><B>-e</B> <DD> The maximum scheduling priority ("nice") <DT><B>-f</B> <DD> The maximum size of files written by the shell and its children <DT><B>-i</B> <DD> The maximum number of pending signals <DT><B>-k</B> <DD> The maximum number of kqueues that may be allocated <DT><B>-l</B> <DD> The maximum size that may be locked into memory <DT><B>-m</B> <DD> The maximum resident set size (many systems do not honor this limit) <DT><B>-n</B> <DD> The maximum number of open file descriptors (most systems do not allow this value to be set) <DT><B>-p</B> <DD> The pipe size in 512-byte blocks (this may not be set) <DT><B>-q</B> <DD> The maximum number of bytes in POSIX message queues <DT><B>-r</B> <DD> The maximum real-time scheduling priority <DT><B>-s</B> <DD> The maximum stack size <DT><B>-t</B> <DD> The maximum amount of cpu time in seconds <DT><B>-u</B> <DD> The maximum number of processes available to a single user <DT><B>-v</B> <DD> The maximum amount of virtual memory available to the shell and, on some systems, to its children <DT><B>-x</B> <DD> The maximum number of file locks <DT><B>-P</B> <DD> The maximum number of pseudoterminals <DT><B>-R</B> <DD> The maximum time a real-time process can run before blocking, in microseconds <DT><B>-T</B> <DD> The maximum number of threads </DL> <P> If <I>limit</I> is given, and the <B>-a</B> option is not used, <I>limit</I> is the new value of the specified resource. If no option is given, then <B>-f</B> is assumed. Values are in 1024-byte increments, except for <B>-t</B>, which is in seconds; <B>-R</B>, which is in microseconds; <B>-p</B>, which is in units of 512-byte blocks; <B>-P</B>, <B>-T</B>, <B>-b</B>, <B>-k</B>, <B>-n</B>, and <B>-u</B>, which are unscaled values; and, when in posix mode, <B>-c</B> and <B>-f</B>, which are in 512-byte increments. The return status is 0 unless an invalid option or argument is supplied, or an error occurs while setting a new limit. </DL> <DT><B>umask</B> [<B>-p</B>] [<B>-S</B>] [<I>mode</I>]<DD> The user file-creation mask is set to <I>mode</I>. If <I>mode</I> begins with a digit, it is interpreted as an octal number; otherwise it is interpreted as a symbolic mode mask similar to that accepted by <I>chmod</I>(1). If <I>mode</I> is omitted, the current value of the mask is printed. The <B>-S</B> option causes the mask to be printed in symbolic form; the default output is an octal number. If the <B>-p</B> option is supplied, and <I>mode</I> is omitted, the output is in a form that may be reused as input. The return status is 0 if the mode was successfully changed or if no <I>mode</I> argument was supplied, and false otherwise. <DT><B>unalias</B> [-<B>a</B>] [<I>name</I> ...]<DD> Remove each <I>name</I> from the list of defined aliases. If <B>-a</B> is supplied, all alias definitions are removed. The return value is true unless a supplied <I>name</I> is not a defined alias. <DT><B>unset</B> [-<B>fv</B>] [-<B>n</B>] [<I>name</I> ...]<DD> For each <I>name</I>, remove the corresponding variable or function. If the <B>-v</B> option is given, each <I>name</I> refers to a shell variable, and that variable is removed. Read-only variables may not be unset. If <B>-f</B> is specified, each <I>name</I> refers to a shell function, and the function definition is removed. If the <B>-n</B> option is supplied, and <I>name</I> is a variable with the <I>nameref</I> attribute, <I>name</I> will be unset rather than the variable it references. <B>-n</B> has no effect if the <B>-f</B> option is supplied. If no options are supplied, each <I>name</I> refers to a variable; if there is no variable by that name, a function with that name, if any, is unset. Each unset variable or function is removed from the environment passed to subsequent commands. If any of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ALIASES</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ARGV0</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_CMDS</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_COMMAND</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_SUBSHELL</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASHPID</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMP_WORDBREAKS</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>DIRSTACK</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EPOCHREALTIME</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>EPOCHSECONDS</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>FUNCNAME</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>GROUPS</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTCMD</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>LINENO</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>RANDOM</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SECONDS</B>, </FONT> or <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SRANDOM</B> </FONT> are unset, they lose their special properties, even if they are subsequently reset. The exit status is true unless a <I>name</I> is readonly. <DT><B>wait</B> [<B>-fn</B>] [-p <I>varname</I>] [<I>id ...</I>]<DD> Wait for each specified child process and return its termination status. Each <I>id</I> may be a process ID or a job specification; if a job spec is given, all processes in that job's pipeline are waited for. If <I>id</I> is not given, <B>wait</B> waits for all running background jobs and the last-executed process substitution, if its process id is the same as <B>$!</B>, and the return status is zero. If the <B>-n</B> option is supplied, <B>wait</B> waits for a single job from the list of <I>id</I>s or, if no <I>id</I>s are supplied, any job, to complete and returns its exit status. If none of the supplied arguments is a child of the shell, or if no arguments are supplied and the shell has no unwaited-for children, the exit status is 127. If the <B>-p</B> option is supplied, the process or job identifier of the job for which the exit status is returned is assigned to the variable <I>varname</I> named by the option argument. The variable will be unset initially, before any assignment. This is useful only when the <B>-n</B> option is supplied. Supplying the <B>-f</B> option, when job control is enabled, forces <B>wait</B> to wait for <I>id</I> to terminate before returning its status, instead of returning when it changes status. If <I>id</I> specifies a non-existent process or job, the return status is 127. Otherwise, the return status is the exit status of the last process or job waited for. </DL> <A NAME="lbDC"> </A> <H3>SHELL COMPATIBILITY MODE</H3> Bash-4.0 introduced the concept of a `shell compatibility level', specified as a set of options to the shopt builtin <B>compat31</B>, <B>compat32</B>, <B>compat40</B>, <B>compat41</B>, and so on). There is only one current compatibility level -- each option is mutually exclusive. The compatibility level is intended to allow users to select behavior from previous versions that is incompatible with newer versions while they migrate scripts to use current features and behavior. It's intended to be a temporary solution. <P> This section does not mention behavior that is standard for a particular version (e.g., setting <B>compat32</B> means that quoting the rhs of the regexp matching operator quotes special regexp characters in the word, which is default behavior in bash-3.2 and above). <P> If a user enables, say, <B>compat32</B>, it may affect the behavior of other compatibility levels up to and including the current compatibility level. The idea is that each compatibility level controls behavior that changed in that version of <B>bash</B>, but that behavior may have been present in earlier versions. For instance, the change to use locale-based comparisons with the <B>[[</B> command came in bash-4.1, and earlier versions used ASCII-based comparisons, so enabling <B>compat32</B> will enable ASCII-based comparisons as well. That granularity may not be sufficient for all uses, and as a result users should employ compatibility levels carefully. Read the documentation for a particular feature to find out the current behavior. <P> Bash-4.3 introduced a new shell variable: <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_COMPAT</B>. </FONT> The value assigned to this variable (a decimal version number like 4.2, or an integer corresponding to the <B>compat</B><I>NN</I> option, like 42) determines the compatibility level. <P> Starting with bash-4.4, Bash has begun deprecating older compatibility levels. Eventually, the options will be removed in favor of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_COMPAT</B>. </FONT> <P> Bash-5.0 is the final version for which there will be an individual shopt option for the previous version. Users should use <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_COMPAT</B> </FONT> on bash-5.0 and later versions. <P> The following table describes the behavior changes controlled by each compatibility level setting. The <B>compat</B><I>NN</I> tag is used as shorthand for setting the compatibility level to <I>NN</I> using one of the following mechanisms. For versions prior to bash-5.0, the compatibility level may be set using the corresponding <B>compat</B><I>NN</I> shopt option. For bash-4.3 and later versions, the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_COMPAT</B> </FONT> variable is preferred, and it is required for bash-5.1 and later versions. <DL COMPACT> <DT><B>compat31</B><DD> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> quoting the rhs of the <B>[[</B> command's regexp matching operator (=~) has no special effect </DL></DL> <DT><B>compat32</B><DD> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> interrupting a command list such as "a ; b ; c" causes the execution of the next command in the list (in bash-4.0 and later versions, the shell acts as if it received the interrupt, so interrupting one command in a list aborts the execution of the entire list) </DL></DL> <DT><B>compat40</B><DD> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> the <B><</B> and <B>></B> operators to the <B>[[</B> command do not consider the current locale when comparing strings; they use ASCII ordering. Bash versions prior to bash-4.1 use ASCII collation and <I>strcmp</I>(3); bash-4.1 and later use the current locale's collation sequence and <I>strcoll</I>(3). </DL></DL> <DT><B>compat41</B><DD> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> in <I>posix</I> mode, <B>time</B> may be followed by options and still be recognized as a reserved word (this is POSIX interpretation 267) <DT>*<DD> in <I>posix</I> mode, the parser requires that an even number of single quotes occur in the <I>word</I> portion of a double-quoted parameter expansion and treats them specially, so that characters within the single quotes are considered quoted (this is POSIX interpretation 221) </DL></DL> <DT><B>compat42</B><DD> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> the replacement string in double-quoted pattern substitution does not undergo quote removal, as it does in versions after bash-4.2 <DT>*<DD> in posix mode, single quotes are considered special when expanding the <I>word</I> portion of a double-quoted parameter expansion and can be used to quote a closing brace or other special character (this is part of POSIX interpretation 221); in later versions, single quotes are not special within double-quoted word expansions </DL></DL> <DT><B>compat43</B><DD> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> the shell does not print a warning message if an attempt is made to use a quoted compound assignment as an argument to declare (declare -a foo='(1 2)'). Later versions warn that this usage is deprecated <DT>*<DD> word expansion errors are considered non-fatal errors that cause the current command to fail, even in posix mode (the default behavior is to make them fatal errors that cause the shell to exit) <DT>*<DD> when executing a shell function, the loop state (while/until/etc.) is not reset, so <B>break</B> or <B>continue</B> in that function will break or continue loops in the calling context. Bash-4.4 and later reset the loop state to prevent this </DL></DL> <DT><B>compat44</B><DD> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> the shell sets up the values used by <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ARGV</B> </FONT> and <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ARGC</B> </FONT> so they can expand to the shell's positional parameters even if extended debugging mode is not enabled <DT>*<DD> a subshell inherits loops from its parent context, so <B>break</B> or <B>continue</B> will cause the subshell to exit. Bash-5.0 and later reset the loop state to prevent the exit <DT>*<DD> variable assignments preceding builtins like <B>export</B> and <B>readonly</B> that set attributes continue to affect variables with the same name in the calling environment even if the shell is not in posix mode </DL></DL> <DT><B>compat50</B><DD> <DL COMPACT><DT><DD> <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> Bash-5.1 changed the way <FONT SIZE=-1><B>$RANDOM</B> </FONT> is generated to introduce slightly more randomness. If the shell compatibility level is set to 50 or lower, it reverts to the method from bash-5.0 and previous versions, so seeding the random number generator by assigning a value to <FONT SIZE=-1><B>RANDOM</B> </FONT> will produce the same sequence as in bash-5.0 <DT>*<DD> If the command hash table is empty, bash versions prior to bash-5.1 printed an informational message to that effect, even when producing output that can be reused as input. Bash-5.1 suppresses that message when the <B>-l</B> option is supplied. </DL></DL> </DL> <A NAME="lbDD"> </A> <H3>RESTRICTED SHELL</H3> <P> If <B>bash</B> is started with the name <B>rbash</B>, or the <B>-r</B> option is supplied at invocation, the shell becomes restricted. A restricted shell is used to set up an environment more controlled than the standard shell. It behaves identically to <B>bash</B> with the exception that the following are disallowed or not performed: <DL COMPACT> <DT>*<DD> changing directories with <B>cd</B> <DT>*<DD> setting or unsetting the values of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELL</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>PATH</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>HISTFILE</B>, </FONT> <FONT SIZE=-1><B>ENV</B>, </FONT> or <FONT SIZE=-1><B>BASH_ENV</B> </FONT> <DT>*<DD> specifying command names containing <B>/</B> <DT>*<DD> specifying a filename containing a <B>/</B> as an argument to the <B>.</B> builtin command <DT>*<DD> specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the <B>history</B> builtin command <DT>*<DD> specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the <B>-p</B> option to the <B>hash</B> builtin command <DT>*<DD> importing function definitions from the shell environment at startup <DT>*<DD> parsing the value of <FONT SIZE=-1><B>SHELLOPTS</B> </FONT> from the shell environment at startup <DT>*<DD> redirecting output using the >, >|, <>, >&, &>, and >> redirection operators <DT>*<DD> using the <B>exec</B> builtin command to replace the shell with another command <DT>*<DD> adding or deleting builtin commands with the <B>-f</B> and <B>-d</B> options to the <B>enable</B> builtin command <DT>*<DD> using the <B>enable</B> builtin command to enable disabled shell builtins <DT>*<DD> specifying the <B>-p</B> option to the <B>command</B> builtin command <DT>*<DD> turning off restricted mode with <B>set +r</B> or <B>set +o restricted</B>. </DL> <P> These restrictions are enforced after any startup files are read. <P> When a command that is found to be a shell script is executed (see <FONT SIZE=-1><B>COMMAND EXECUTION</B> </FONT> above), <B>rbash</B> turns off any restrictions in the shell spawned to execute the script. <A NAME="lbDE"> </A> <H3>SEE ALSO</H3> <DL COMPACT> <DT><I>Bash Reference Manual</I>, Brian Fox and Chet Ramey<DD> <DT><I>The Gnu Readline Library</I>, Brian Fox and Chet Ramey<DD> <DT><I>The Gnu History Library</I>, Brian Fox and Chet Ramey<DD> <DT><I>Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) Part 2: Shell and Utilities</I>, IEEE --<DD> <A HREF="http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/">http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/</A> <DT><A HREF="http://tiswww.case.edu/~chet/bash/POSIX">http://tiswww.case.edu/~chet/bash/POSIX</A> -- a description of posix mode<DD> <DT><I>sh</I>(1), <I>ksh</I>(1), <I>csh</I>(1)<DD> <DT><I>emacs</I>(1), <I>vi</I>(1)<DD> <DT><I>readline</I>(3)<DD> </DL> <A NAME="lbDF"> </A> <H3>FILES</H3> <DL COMPACT> <DT> <A HREF="file:/bin/bash"><I>/bin/bash</I></A> <DD> The <B>bash</B> executable <DT> <A HREF="file:/etc/profile"><I>/etc/profile</I></A> <DD> The systemwide initialization file, executed for login shells <DT> <A HREF="file:~/.bash_profile"><I>~/.bash_profile</I></A> <DD> The personal initialization file, executed for login shells <DT> <A HREF="file:~/.bashrc"><I>~/.bashrc</I></A> <DD> The individual per-interactive-shell startup file <DT> <A HREF="file:~/.bash_logout"><I>~/.bash_logout</I></A> <DD> The individual login shell cleanup file, executed when a login shell exits <DT> <A HREF="file:~/.inputrc"><I>~/.inputrc</I></A> <DD> Individual <I>readline</I> initialization file </DL> <A NAME="lbDG"> </A> <H3>AUTHORS</H3> Brian Fox, Free Software Foundation <BR> <A HREF="mailto:bfox@gnu.org">bfox@gnu.org</A> <P> Chet Ramey, Case Western Reserve University <BR> <A HREF="mailto:chet.ramey@case.edu">chet.ramey@case.edu</A> <A NAME="lbDH"> </A> <H3>BUG REPORTS</H3> If you find a bug in <B>bash,</B> you should report it. But first, you should make sure that it really is a bug, and that it appears in the latest version of <B>bash</B>. The latest version is always available from <I><A HREF="ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/bash/">ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/bash/</A></I>. <P> Once you have determined that a bug actually exists, use the <I>bashbug</I> command to submit a bug report. If you have a fix, you are encouraged to mail that as well! Suggestions and `philosophical' bug reports may be mailed to <I><A HREF="mailto:bug-bash@gnu.org">bug-bash@gnu.org</A></I> or posted to the Usenet newsgroup <A HREF="news:gnu.bash.bug">gnu.bash.bug</A>. <P> ALL bug reports should include: <P> <DL COMPACT> <DT>The version number of <B>bash</B><DD> <DT>The hardware and operating system<DD> <DT>The compiler used to compile<DD> <DT>A description of the bug behaviour<DD> <DT>A short script or `recipe' which exercises the bug<DD> </DL> <P> <I>bashbug</I> inserts the first three items automatically into the template it provides for filing a bug report. <P> Comments and bug reports concerning this manual page should be directed to <I><A HREF="mailto:chet.ramey@case.edu">chet.ramey@case.edu</A></I>. <A NAME="lbDI"> </A> <H3>BUGS</H3> It's too big and too slow. <P> There are some subtle differences between <B>bash</B> and traditional versions of <B>sh</B>, mostly because of the <FONT SIZE=-1><B>POSIX</B> </FONT> specification. <P> Aliases are confusing in some uses. <P> Shell builtin commands and functions are not stoppable/restartable. <P> Compound commands and command sequences of the form `a ; b ; c' are not handled gracefully when process suspension is attempted. When a process is stopped, the shell immediately executes the next command in the sequence. It suffices to place the sequence of commands between parentheses to force it into a subshell, which may be stopped as a unit. <P> Array variables may not (yet) be exported. <P> There may be only one active coprocess at a time. <HR> <TABLE WIDTH=100%> <TR> <TH ALIGN=LEFT width=33%>GNU Bash 5.1<TH ALIGN=CENTER width=33%>2020 October 29<TH ALIGN=RIGHT width=33%>BASH(1) </TR> </TABLE> <HR> <A NAME="index"> </A><H2>Index</H2> <DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbAB">NAME</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAC">SYNOPSIS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAD">COPYRIGHT</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAE">DESCRIPTION</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAF">OPTIONS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAG">ARGUMENTS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAH">INVOCATION</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAI">DEFINITIONS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAJ">RESERVED WORDS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAK">SHELL GRAMMAR</A><DD> <DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbAL">Simple Commands</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAM">Pipelines</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAN">Lists</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAO">Compound Commands</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAP">Coprocesses</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAQ">Shell Function Definitions</A><DD> </DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbAR">COMMENTS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAS">QUOTING</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAT">PARAMETERS</A><DD> <DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbAU">Positional Parameters</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAV">Special Parameters</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAW">Shell Variables</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbAX">Arrays</A><DD> </DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbAY">EXPANSION</A><DD> <DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbAZ">Brace Expansion</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBA">Tilde Expansion</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBB">Parameter Expansion</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBC">Command Substitution</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBD">Arithmetic Expansion</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBE">Process Substitution</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBF">Word Splitting</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBG">Pathname Expansion</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBH">Quote Removal</A><DD> </DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbBI">REDIRECTION</A><DD> <DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbBJ">Redirecting Input</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBK">Redirecting Output</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBL">Appending Redirected Output</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBM">Redirecting Standard Output and Standard Error</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBN">Appending Standard Output and Standard Error</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBO">Here Documents</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBP">Here Strings</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBQ">Duplicating File Descriptors</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBR">Moving File Descriptors</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBS">Opening File Descriptors for Reading and Writing</A><DD> </DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbBT">ALIASES</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBU">FUNCTIONS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBV">ARITHMETIC EVALUATION</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBW">CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBX">SIMPLE COMMAND EXPANSION</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBY">COMMAND EXECUTION</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbBZ">COMMAND EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCA">ENVIRONMENT</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCB">EXIT STATUS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCC">SIGNALS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCD">JOB CONTROL</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCE">PROMPTING</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCF">READLINE</A><DD> <DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbCG">Readline Notation</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCH">Readline Initialization</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCI">Readline Key Bindings</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCJ">Readline Variables</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCK">Readline Conditional Constructs</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCL">Searching</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCM">Readline Command Names</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCN">Commands for Moving</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCO">Commands for Manipulating the History</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCP">Commands for Changing Text</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCQ">Killing and Yanking</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCR">Numeric Arguments</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCS">Completing</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCT">Keyboard Macros</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCU">Miscellaneous</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCV">Programmable Completion</A><DD> </DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbCW">HISTORY</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCX">HISTORY EXPANSION</A><DD> <DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbCY">Event Designators</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbCZ">Word Designators</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbDA">Modifiers</A><DD> </DL> <DT><A HREF="#lbDB">SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbDC">SHELL COMPATIBILITY MODE</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbDD">RESTRICTED SHELL</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbDE">SEE ALSO</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbDF">FILES</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbDG">AUTHORS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbDH">BUG REPORTS</A><DD> <DT><A HREF="#lbDI">BUGS</A><DD> </DL> <HR> This document was created by man2html from bash.1.<BR> Time: 18 November 2020 15:13:09 EST </BODY> </HTML> PK �!\��URs Rs bashref.htmlnu �[��� <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> <html> <!-- This text is a brief description of the features that are present in the Bash shell (version 5.1, 29 October 2020). 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{font-family: inherit} pre.format {font-family: inherit} pre.menu-comment {font-family: serif} pre.menu-preformatted {font-family: serif} span.nolinebreak {white-space: nowrap} span.roman {font-family: initial; font-weight: normal} span.sansserif {font-family: sans-serif; font-weight: normal} ul.no-bullet {list-style: none} --> </style> </head> <body lang="en"> <h1 class="settitle" align="center">Bash Reference Manual</h1> <span id="SEC_Contents"></span> <h2 class="contents-heading">Table of Contents</h2> <div class="contents"> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Introduction-1" href="#Introduction">1 Introduction</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-What-is-Bash_003f-1" href="#What-is-Bash_003f">1.1 What is Bash?</a></li> <li><a id="toc-What-is-a-shell_003f-1" href="#What-is-a-shell_003f">1.2 What is a shell?</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Definitions-1" href="#Definitions">2 Definitions</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Basic-Shell-Features-1" href="#Basic-Shell-Features">3 Basic Shell Features</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Syntax-1" href="#Shell-Syntax">3.1 Shell Syntax</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Operation-1" href="#Shell-Operation">3.1.1 Shell Operation</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Quoting-1" href="#Quoting">3.1.2 Quoting</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Escape-Character-1" href="#Escape-Character">3.1.2.1 Escape Character</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Single-Quotes-1" href="#Single-Quotes">3.1.2.2 Single Quotes</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Double-Quotes-1" href="#Double-Quotes">3.1.2.3 Double Quotes</a></li> <li><a id="toc-ANSI_002dC-Quoting-1" href="#ANSI_002dC-Quoting">3.1.2.4 ANSI-C Quoting</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Locale_002dSpecific-Translation" href="#Locale-Translation">3.1.2.5 Locale-Specific Translation</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Comments-1" href="#Comments">3.1.3 Comments</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Commands-1" href="#Shell-Commands">3.2 Shell Commands</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Reserved-Words-1" href="#Reserved-Words">3.2.1 Reserved Words</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Simple-Commands-1" href="#Simple-Commands">3.2.2 Simple Commands</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Pipelines-1" href="#Pipelines">3.2.3 Pipelines</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Lists-of-Commands" href="#Lists">3.2.4 Lists of Commands</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Compound-Commands-1" href="#Compound-Commands">3.2.5 Compound Commands</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Looping-Constructs-1" href="#Looping-Constructs">3.2.5.1 Looping Constructs</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Conditional-Constructs-1" href="#Conditional-Constructs">3.2.5.2 Conditional Constructs</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Grouping-Commands" href="#Command-Grouping">3.2.5.3 Grouping Commands</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Coprocesses-1" href="#Coprocesses">3.2.6 Coprocesses</a></li> <li><a id="toc-GNU-Parallel-1" href="#GNU-Parallel">3.2.7 GNU Parallel</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Functions-1" href="#Shell-Functions">3.3 Shell Functions</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Parameters-1" href="#Shell-Parameters">3.4 Shell Parameters</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Positional-Parameters-1" href="#Positional-Parameters">3.4.1 Positional Parameters</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Special-Parameters-1" href="#Special-Parameters">3.4.2 Special Parameters</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Expansions-1" href="#Shell-Expansions">3.5 Shell Expansions</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Brace-Expansion-1" href="#Brace-Expansion">3.5.1 Brace Expansion</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Tilde-Expansion-1" href="#Tilde-Expansion">3.5.2 Tilde Expansion</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Parameter-Expansion-1" href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">3.5.3 Shell Parameter Expansion</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Command-Substitution-1" href="#Command-Substitution">3.5.4 Command Substitution</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Arithmetic-Expansion-1" href="#Arithmetic-Expansion">3.5.5 Arithmetic Expansion</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Process-Substitution-1" href="#Process-Substitution">3.5.6 Process Substitution</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Word-Splitting-1" href="#Word-Splitting">3.5.7 Word Splitting</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Filename-Expansion-1" href="#Filename-Expansion">3.5.8 Filename Expansion</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Pattern-Matching-1" href="#Pattern-Matching">3.5.8.1 Pattern Matching</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Quote-Removal-1" href="#Quote-Removal">3.5.9 Quote Removal</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Redirections-1" href="#Redirections">3.6 Redirections</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Redirecting-Input" href="#Redirecting-Input">3.6.1 Redirecting Input</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Redirecting-Output" href="#Redirecting-Output">3.6.2 Redirecting Output</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Appending-Redirected-Output" href="#Appending-Redirected-Output">3.6.3 Appending Redirected Output</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Redirecting-Standard-Output-and-Standard-Error" href="#Redirecting-Standard-Output-and-Standard-Error">3.6.4 Redirecting Standard Output and Standard Error</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Appending-Standard-Output-and-Standard-Error" href="#Appending-Standard-Output-and-Standard-Error">3.6.5 Appending Standard Output and Standard Error</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Here-Documents" href="#Here-Documents">3.6.6 Here Documents</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Here-Strings" href="#Here-Strings">3.6.7 Here Strings</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Duplicating-File-Descriptors" href="#Duplicating-File-Descriptors">3.6.8 Duplicating File Descriptors</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Moving-File-Descriptors" href="#Moving-File-Descriptors">3.6.9 Moving File Descriptors</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Opening-File-Descriptors-for-Reading-and-Writing" href="#Opening-File-Descriptors-for-Reading-and-Writing">3.6.10 Opening File Descriptors for Reading and Writing</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Executing-Commands-1" href="#Executing-Commands">3.7 Executing Commands</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Simple-Command-Expansion-1" href="#Simple-Command-Expansion">3.7.1 Simple Command Expansion</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Command-Search-and-Execution-1" href="#Command-Search-and-Execution">3.7.2 Command Search and Execution</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Command-Execution-Environment-1" href="#Command-Execution-Environment">3.7.3 Command Execution Environment</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Environment-1" href="#Environment">3.7.4 Environment</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Exit-Status-1" href="#Exit-Status">3.7.5 Exit Status</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Signals-1" href="#Signals">3.7.6 Signals</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Scripts-1" href="#Shell-Scripts">3.8 Shell Scripts</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Builtin-Commands-1" href="#Shell-Builtin-Commands">4 Shell Builtin Commands</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Bourne-Shell-Builtins-1" href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">4.1 Bourne Shell Builtins</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Bash-Builtin-Commands" href="#Bash-Builtins">4.2 Bash Builtin Commands</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Modifying-Shell-Behavior-1" href="#Modifying-Shell-Behavior">4.3 Modifying Shell Behavior</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-The-Set-Builtin-1" href="#The-Set-Builtin">4.3.1 The Set Builtin</a></li> <li><a id="toc-The-Shopt-Builtin-1" href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">4.3.2 The Shopt Builtin</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Special-Builtins-1" href="#Special-Builtins">4.4 Special Builtins</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Variables-1" href="#Shell-Variables">5 Shell Variables</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Bourne-Shell-Variables-1" href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">5.1 Bourne Shell Variables</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Bash-Variables-1" href="#Bash-Variables">5.2 Bash Variables</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Bash-Features-2" href="#Bash-Features">6 Bash Features</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Invoking-Bash-1" href="#Invoking-Bash">6.1 Invoking Bash</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Bash-Startup-Files-1" href="#Bash-Startup-Files">6.2 Bash Startup Files</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Interactive-Shells-1" href="#Interactive-Shells">6.3 Interactive Shells</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-What-is-an-Interactive-Shell_003f-1" href="#What-is-an-Interactive-Shell_003f">6.3.1 What is an Interactive Shell?</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Is-this-Shell-Interactive_003f-1" href="#Is-this-Shell-Interactive_003f">6.3.2 Is this Shell Interactive?</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Interactive-Shell-Behavior-1" href="#Interactive-Shell-Behavior">6.3.3 Interactive Shell Behavior</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Bash-Conditional-Expressions-1" href="#Bash-Conditional-Expressions">6.4 Bash Conditional Expressions</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Arithmetic-1" href="#Shell-Arithmetic">6.5 Shell Arithmetic</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Aliases-1" href="#Aliases">6.6 Aliases</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Arrays-1" href="#Arrays">6.7 Arrays</a></li> <li><a id="toc-The-Directory-Stack-1" href="#The-Directory-Stack">6.8 The Directory Stack</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Directory-Stack-Builtins-1" href="#Directory-Stack-Builtins">6.8.1 Directory Stack Builtins</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Controlling-the-Prompt-1" href="#Controlling-the-Prompt">6.9 Controlling the Prompt</a></li> <li><a id="toc-The-Restricted-Shell-1" href="#The-Restricted-Shell">6.10 The Restricted Shell</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Bash-POSIX-Mode-1" href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">6.11 Bash POSIX Mode</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Shell-Compatibility-Mode-1" href="#Shell-Compatibility-Mode">6.12 Shell Compatibility Mode</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Job-Control-1" href="#Job-Control">7 Job Control</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Job-Control-Basics-1" href="#Job-Control-Basics">7.1 Job Control Basics</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Job-Control-Builtins-1" href="#Job-Control-Builtins">7.2 Job Control Builtins</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Job-Control-Variables-1" href="#Job-Control-Variables">7.3 Job Control Variables</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Command-Line-Editing-1" href="#Command-Line-Editing">8 Command Line Editing</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Introduction-to-Line-Editing" href="#Introduction-and-Notation">8.1 Introduction to Line Editing</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Readline-Interaction-1" href="#Readline-Interaction">8.2 Readline Interaction</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Readline-Bare-Essentials-1" href="#Readline-Bare-Essentials">8.2.1 Readline Bare Essentials</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Readline-Movement-Commands-1" href="#Readline-Movement-Commands">8.2.2 Readline Movement Commands</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Readline-Killing-Commands-1" href="#Readline-Killing-Commands">8.2.3 Readline Killing Commands</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Readline-Arguments-1" href="#Readline-Arguments">8.2.4 Readline Arguments</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Searching-for-Commands-in-the-History" href="#Searching">8.2.5 Searching for Commands in the History</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Readline-Init-File-1" href="#Readline-Init-File">8.3 Readline Init File</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Readline-Init-File-Syntax-1" href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">8.3.1 Readline Init File Syntax</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Conditional-Init-Constructs-1" href="#Conditional-Init-Constructs">8.3.2 Conditional Init Constructs</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Sample-Init-File-1" href="#Sample-Init-File">8.3.3 Sample Init File</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Bindable-Readline-Commands-1" href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands">8.4 Bindable Readline Commands</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Commands-For-Moving-1" href="#Commands-For-Moving">8.4.1 Commands For Moving</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Commands-For-Manipulating-The-History" href="#Commands-For-History">8.4.2 Commands For Manipulating The History</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Commands-For-Changing-Text" href="#Commands-For-Text">8.4.3 Commands For Changing Text</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Killing-And-Yanking" href="#Commands-For-Killing">8.4.4 Killing And Yanking</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Specifying-Numeric-Arguments" href="#Numeric-Arguments">8.4.5 Specifying Numeric Arguments</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Letting-Readline-Type-For-You" href="#Commands-For-Completion">8.4.6 Letting Readline Type For You</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Keyboard-Macros-1" href="#Keyboard-Macros">8.4.7 Keyboard Macros</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Some-Miscellaneous-Commands" href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">8.4.8 Some Miscellaneous Commands</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Readline-vi-Mode-1" href="#Readline-vi-Mode">8.5 Readline vi Mode</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Programmable-Completion-1" href="#Programmable-Completion">8.6 Programmable Completion</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Programmable-Completion-Builtins-1" href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins">8.7 Programmable Completion Builtins</a></li> <li><a id="toc-A-Programmable-Completion-Example-1" href="#A-Programmable-Completion-Example">8.8 A Programmable Completion Example</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Using-History-Interactively-1" href="#Using-History-Interactively">9 Using History Interactively</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Bash-History-Facilities-1" href="#Bash-History-Facilities">9.1 Bash History Facilities</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Bash-History-Builtins-1" href="#Bash-History-Builtins">9.2 Bash History Builtins</a></li> <li><a id="toc-History-Expansion" href="#History-Interaction">9.3 History Expansion</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Event-Designators-1" href="#Event-Designators">9.3.1 Event Designators</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Word-Designators-1" href="#Word-Designators">9.3.2 Word Designators</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Modifiers-1" href="#Modifiers">9.3.3 Modifiers</a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Installing-Bash-1" href="#Installing-Bash">10 Installing Bash</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Basic-Installation-1" href="#Basic-Installation">10.1 Basic Installation</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Compilers-and-Options-1" href="#Compilers-and-Options">10.2 Compilers and Options</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Compiling-For-Multiple-Architectures-1" href="#Compiling-For-Multiple-Architectures">10.3 Compiling For Multiple Architectures</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Installation-Names-1" href="#Installation-Names">10.4 Installation Names</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Specifying-the-System-Type-1" href="#Specifying-the-System-Type">10.5 Specifying the System Type</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Sharing-Defaults-1" href="#Sharing-Defaults">10.6 Sharing Defaults</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Operation-Controls-1" href="#Operation-Controls">10.7 Operation Controls</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Optional-Features-1" href="#Optional-Features">10.8 Optional Features</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-Reporting-Bugs-1" href="#Reporting-Bugs">Appendix A Reporting Bugs</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Major-Differences-From-The-Bourne-Shell-1" href="#Major-Differences-From-The-Bourne-Shell">Appendix B Major Differences From The Bourne Shell</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Implementation-Differences-From-The-SVR4_002e2-Shell" href="#Implementation-Differences-From-The-SVR4_002e2-Shell">B.1 Implementation Differences From The SVR4.2 Shell</a></li> </ul></li> <li><a id="toc-GNU-Free-Documentation-License-1" href="#GNU-Free-Documentation-License">Appendix C GNU Free Documentation License</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Indexes-1" href="#Indexes">Appendix D Indexes</a> <ul class="no-bullet"> <li><a id="toc-Index-of-Shell-Builtin-Commands" href="#Builtin-Index" rel="index">D.1 Index of Shell Builtin Commands</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Index-of-Shell-Reserved-Words" href="#Reserved-Word-Index" rel="index">D.2 Index of Shell Reserved Words</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Parameter-and-Variable-Index" href="#Variable-Index" rel="index">D.3 Parameter and Variable Index</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Function-Index-1" href="#Function-Index" rel="index">D.4 Function Index</a></li> <li><a id="toc-Concept-Index-1" href="#Concept-Index" rel="index">D.5 Concept Index</a></li> </ul></li> </ul> </div> <span id="Top"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Introduction" accesskey="n" rel="next">Introduction</a>, Previous: <a href="dir.html#Top" accesskey="p" rel="prev">(dir)</a>, Up: <a href="dir.html#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">(dir)</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bash-Features-1"></span><h1 class="top">Bash Features</h1> <p>This text is a brief description of the features that are present in the Bash shell (version 5.1, 29 October 2020). The Bash home page is <a href="http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/">http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/</a>. </p> <p>This is Edition 5.1, last updated 29 October 2020, of <cite>The GNU Bash Reference Manual</cite>, for <code>Bash</code>, Version 5.1. </p> <p>Bash contains features that appear in other popular shells, and some features that only appear in Bash. Some of the shells that Bash has borrowed concepts from are the Bourne Shell (<samp>sh</samp>), the Korn Shell (<samp>ksh</samp>), and the C-shell (<samp>csh</samp> and its successor, <samp>tcsh</samp>). The following menu breaks the features up into categories, noting which features were inspired by other shells and which are specific to Bash. </p> <p>This manual is meant as a brief introduction to features found in Bash. The Bash manual page should be used as the definitive reference on shell behavior. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Introduction" accesskey="1">Introduction</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">An introduction to the shell. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="2">Definitions</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Some definitions used in the rest of this manual. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="3">Basic Shell Features</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The shell "building blocks". </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Builtin-Commands" accesskey="4">Shell Builtin Commands</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Commands that are a part of the shell. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Variables" accesskey="5">Shell Variables</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Variables used or set by Bash. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="6">Bash Features</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Features found only in Bash. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Job-Control" accesskey="7">Job Control</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">What job control is and how Bash allows you to use it. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="8">Command Line Editing</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Chapter describing the command line editing features. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Using-History-Interactively" accesskey="9">Using History Interactively</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Command History Expansion </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Installing-Bash">Installing Bash</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to build and install Bash on your system. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Reporting-Bugs">Reporting Bugs</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to report bugs in Bash. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Major-Differences-From-The-Bourne-Shell">Major Differences From The Bourne Shell</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A terse list of the differences between Bash and historical versions of /bin/sh. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#GNU-Free-Documentation-License">GNU Free Documentation License</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Copying and sharing this documentation. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Various indexes for this manual. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Introduction"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="n" rel="next">Definitions</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Introduction-1"></span><h2 class="chapter">1 Introduction</h2> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#What-is-Bash_003f" accesskey="1">What is Bash?</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A short description of Bash. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#What-is-a-shell_003f" accesskey="2">What is a shell?</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A brief introduction to shells. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="What-is-Bash_003f"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#What-is-a-shell_003f" accesskey="n" rel="next">What is a shell?</a>, Up: <a href="#Introduction" accesskey="u" rel="up">Introduction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="What-is-Bash_003f-1"></span><h3 class="section">1.1 What is Bash?</h3> <p>Bash is the shell, or command language interpreter, for the <small>GNU</small> operating system. The name is an acronym for the ‘<samp>Bourne-Again SHell</samp>’, a pun on Stephen Bourne, the author of the direct ancestor of the current Unix shell <code>sh</code>, which appeared in the Seventh Edition Bell Labs Research version of Unix. </p> <p>Bash is largely compatible with <code>sh</code> and incorporates useful features from the Korn shell <code>ksh</code> and the C shell <code>csh</code>. It is intended to be a conformant implementation of the <small>IEEE</small> <small>POSIX</small> Shell and Tools portion of the <small>IEEE</small> <small>POSIX</small> specification (<small>IEEE</small> Standard 1003.1). It offers functional improvements over <code>sh</code> for both interactive and programming use. </p> <p>While the <small>GNU</small> operating system provides other shells, including a version of <code>csh</code>, Bash is the default shell. Like other <small>GNU</small> software, Bash is quite portable. It currently runs on nearly every version of Unix and a few other operating systems - independently-supported ports exist for <small>MS-DOS</small>, <small>OS/2</small>, and Windows platforms. </p> <hr> <span id="What-is-a-shell_003f"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#What-is-Bash_003f" accesskey="p" rel="prev">What is Bash?</a>, Up: <a href="#Introduction" accesskey="u" rel="up">Introduction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="What-is-a-shell_003f-1"></span><h3 class="section">1.2 What is a shell?</h3> <p>At its base, a shell is simply a macro processor that executes commands. The term macro processor means functionality where text and symbols are expanded to create larger expressions. </p> <p>A Unix shell is both a command interpreter and a programming language. As a command interpreter, the shell provides the user interface to the rich set of <small>GNU</small> utilities. The programming language features allow these utilities to be combined. Files containing commands can be created, and become commands themselves. These new commands have the same status as system commands in directories such as <samp>/bin</samp>, allowing users or groups to establish custom environments to automate their common tasks. </p> <p>Shells may be used interactively or non-interactively. In interactive mode, they accept input typed from the keyboard. When executing non-interactively, shells execute commands read from a file. </p> <p>A shell allows execution of <small>GNU</small> commands, both synchronously and asynchronously. The shell waits for synchronous commands to complete before accepting more input; asynchronous commands continue to execute in parallel with the shell while it reads and executes additional commands. The <em>redirection</em> constructs permit fine-grained control of the input and output of those commands. Moreover, the shell allows control over the contents of commands’ environments. </p> <p>Shells also provide a small set of built-in commands (<em>builtins</em>) implementing functionality impossible or inconvenient to obtain via separate utilities. For example, <code>cd</code>, <code>break</code>, <code>continue</code>, and <code>exec</code> cannot be implemented outside of the shell because they directly manipulate the shell itself. The <code>history</code>, <code>getopts</code>, <code>kill</code>, or <code>pwd</code> builtins, among others, could be implemented in separate utilities, but they are more convenient to use as builtin commands. All of the shell builtins are described in subsequent sections. </p> <p>While executing commands is essential, most of the power (and complexity) of shells is due to their embedded programming languages. Like any high-level language, the shell provides variables, flow control constructs, quoting, and functions. </p> <p>Shells offer features geared specifically for interactive use rather than to augment the programming language. These interactive features include job control, command line editing, command history and aliases. Each of these features is described in this manual. </p> <hr> <span id="Definitions"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="n" rel="next">Basic Shell Features</a>, Previous: <a href="#Introduction" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Introduction</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Definitions-1"></span><h2 class="chapter">2 Definitions</h2> <p>These definitions are used throughout the remainder of this manual. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>POSIX</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-POSIX"></span> <p>A family of open system standards based on Unix. Bash is primarily concerned with the Shell and Utilities portion of the <small>POSIX</small> 1003.1 standard. </p> </dd> <dt><code>blank</code></dt> <dd><p>A space or tab character. </p> </dd> <dt><code>builtin</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-builtin-1"></span> <p>A command that is implemented internally by the shell itself, rather than by an executable program somewhere in the file system. </p> </dd> <dt><code>control operator</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-control-operator"></span> <p>A <code>token</code> that performs a control function. It is a <code>newline</code> or one of the following: ‘<samp>||</samp>’, ‘<samp>&&</samp>’, ‘<samp>&</samp>’, ‘<samp>;</samp>’, ‘<samp>;;</samp>’, ‘<samp>;&</samp>’, ‘<samp>;;&</samp>’, ‘<samp>|</samp>’, ‘<samp>|&</samp>’, ‘<samp>(</samp>’, or ‘<samp>)</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>exit status</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-exit-status"></span> <p>The value returned by a command to its caller. The value is restricted to eight bits, so the maximum value is 255. </p> </dd> <dt><code>field</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-field"></span> <p>A unit of text that is the result of one of the shell expansions. After expansion, when executing a command, the resulting fields are used as the command name and arguments. </p> </dd> <dt><code>filename</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-filename"></span> <p>A string of characters used to identify a file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>job</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-job"></span> <p>A set of processes comprising a pipeline, and any processes descended from it, that are all in the same process group. </p> </dd> <dt><code>job control</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-job-control"></span> <p>A mechanism by which users can selectively stop (suspend) and restart (resume) execution of processes. </p> </dd> <dt><code>metacharacter</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-metacharacter"></span> <p>A character that, when unquoted, separates words. A metacharacter is a <code>space</code>, <code>tab</code>, <code>newline</code>, or one of the following characters: ‘<samp>|</samp>’, ‘<samp>&</samp>’, ‘<samp>;</samp>’, ‘<samp>(</samp>’, ‘<samp>)</samp>’, ‘<samp><</samp>’, or ‘<samp>></samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>name</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-name"></span> <span id="index-identifier"></span> <p>A <code>word</code> consisting solely of letters, numbers, and underscores, and beginning with a letter or underscore. <code>Name</code>s are used as shell variable and function names. Also referred to as an <code>identifier</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>operator</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-operator_002c-shell"></span> <p>A <code>control operator</code> or a <code>redirection operator</code>. See <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>, for a list of redirection operators. Operators contain at least one unquoted <code>metacharacter</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>process group</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-process-group"></span> <p>A collection of related processes each having the same process group <small>ID</small>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>process group ID</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-process-group-ID"></span> <p>A unique identifier that represents a <code>process group</code> during its lifetime. </p> </dd> <dt><code>reserved word</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-reserved-word"></span> <p>A <code>word</code> that has a special meaning to the shell. Most reserved words introduce shell flow control constructs, such as <code>for</code> and <code>while</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>return status</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-return-status"></span> <p>A synonym for <code>exit status</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>signal</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-signal"></span> <p>A mechanism by which a process may be notified by the kernel of an event occurring in the system. </p> </dd> <dt><code>special builtin</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-special-builtin"></span> <p>A shell builtin command that has been classified as special by the <small>POSIX</small> standard. </p> </dd> <dt><code>token</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-token"></span> <p>A sequence of characters considered a single unit by the shell. It is either a <code>word</code> or an <code>operator</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>word</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-word"></span> <p>A sequence of characters treated as a unit by the shell. Words may not include unquoted <code>metacharacters</code>. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Basic-Shell-Features"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Builtin-Commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Builtin Commands</a>, Previous: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Definitions</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Basic-Shell-Features-1"></span><h2 class="chapter">3 Basic Shell Features</h2> <span id="index-Bourne-shell"></span> <p>Bash is an acronym for ‘<samp>Bourne-Again SHell</samp>’. The Bourne shell is the traditional Unix shell originally written by Stephen Bourne. All of the Bourne shell builtin commands are available in Bash, The rules for evaluation and quoting are taken from the <small>POSIX</small> specification for the ‘standard’ Unix shell. </p> <p>This chapter briefly summarizes the shell’s ‘building blocks’: commands, control structures, shell functions, shell <i>parameters</i>, shell expansions, <i>redirections</i>, which are a way to direct input and output from and to named files, and how the shell executes commands. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Syntax" accesskey="1">Shell Syntax</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">What your input means to the shell. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="2">Shell Commands</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The types of commands you can use. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Functions" accesskey="3">Shell Functions</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Grouping commands by name. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Parameters" accesskey="4">Shell Parameters</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How the shell stores values. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="5">Shell Expansions</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How Bash expands parameters and the various expansions available. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Redirections" accesskey="6">Redirections</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A way to control where input and output go. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Executing-Commands" accesskey="7">Executing Commands</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">What happens when you run a command. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Scripts" accesskey="8">Shell Scripts</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Executing files of shell commands. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Shell-Syntax"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Basic Shell Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Syntax-1"></span><h3 class="section">3.1 Shell Syntax</h3> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Operation" accesskey="1">Shell Operation</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The basic operation of the shell. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Quoting" accesskey="2">Quoting</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to remove the special meaning from characters. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Comments" accesskey="3">Comments</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to specify comments. </td></tr> </table> <p>When the shell reads input, it proceeds through a sequence of operations. If the input indicates the beginning of a comment, the shell ignores the comment symbol (‘<samp>#</samp>’), and the rest of that line. </p> <p>Otherwise, roughly speaking, the shell reads its input and divides the input into words and operators, employing the quoting rules to select which meanings to assign various words and characters. </p> <p>The shell then parses these tokens into commands and other constructs, removes the special meaning of certain words or characters, expands others, redirects input and output as needed, executes the specified command, waits for the command’s exit status, and makes that exit status available for further inspection or processing. </p> <hr> <span id="Shell-Operation"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Quoting" accesskey="n" rel="next">Quoting</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Syntax" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Syntax</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Operation-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.1.1 Shell Operation</h4> <p>The following is a brief description of the shell’s operation when it reads and executes a command. Basically, the shell does the following: </p> <ol> <li> Reads its input from a file (see <a href="#Shell-Scripts">Shell Scripts</a>), from a string supplied as an argument to the <samp>-c</samp> invocation option (see <a href="#Invoking-Bash">Invoking Bash</a>), or from the user’s terminal. </li><li> Breaks the input into words and operators, obeying the quoting rules described in <a href="#Quoting">Quoting</a>. These tokens are separated by <code>metacharacters</code>. Alias expansion is performed by this step (see <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>). </li><li> Parses the tokens into simple and compound commands (see <a href="#Shell-Commands">Shell Commands</a>). </li><li> Performs the various shell expansions (see <a href="#Shell-Expansions">Shell Expansions</a>), breaking the expanded tokens into lists of filenames (see <a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a>) and commands and arguments. </li><li> Performs any necessary redirections (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>) and removes the redirection operators and their operands from the argument list. </li><li> Executes the command (see <a href="#Executing-Commands">Executing Commands</a>). </li><li> Optionally waits for the command to complete and collects its exit status (see <a href="#Exit-Status">Exit Status</a>). </li></ol> <hr> <span id="Quoting"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Comments" accesskey="n" rel="next">Comments</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Operation" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Operation</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Syntax" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Syntax</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Quoting-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.1.2 Quoting</h4> <span id="index-quoting"></span> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Escape-Character" accesskey="1">Escape Character</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to remove the special meaning from a single character. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Single-Quotes" accesskey="2">Single Quotes</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to inhibit all interpretation of a sequence of characters. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Double-Quotes" accesskey="3">Double Quotes</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to suppress most of the interpretation of a sequence of characters. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#ANSI_002dC-Quoting" accesskey="4">ANSI-C Quoting</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to expand ANSI-C sequences in quoted strings. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Locale-Translation" accesskey="5">Locale Translation</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to translate strings into different languages. </td></tr> </table> <p>Quoting is used to remove the special meaning of certain characters or words to the shell. Quoting can be used to disable special treatment for special characters, to prevent reserved words from being recognized as such, and to prevent parameter expansion. </p> <p>Each of the shell metacharacters (see <a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a>) has special meaning to the shell and must be quoted if it is to represent itself. When the command history expansion facilities are being used (see <a href="#History-Interaction">History Interaction</a>), the <var>history expansion</var> character, usually ‘<samp>!</samp>’, must be quoted to prevent history expansion. See <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a>, for more details concerning history expansion. </p> <p>There are three quoting mechanisms: the <var>escape character</var>, single quotes, and double quotes. </p> <hr> <span id="Escape-Character"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Single-Quotes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Single Quotes</a>, Up: <a href="#Quoting" accesskey="u" rel="up">Quoting</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Escape-Character-1"></span><h4 class="subsubsection">3.1.2.1 Escape Character</h4> <p>A non-quoted backslash ‘<samp>\</samp>’ is the Bash escape character. It preserves the literal value of the next character that follows, with the exception of <code>newline</code>. If a <code>\newline</code> pair appears, and the backslash itself is not quoted, the <code>\newline</code> is treated as a line continuation (that is, it is removed from the input stream and effectively ignored). </p> <hr> <span id="Single-Quotes"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Double-Quotes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Double Quotes</a>, Previous: <a href="#Escape-Character" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Escape Character</a>, Up: <a href="#Quoting" accesskey="u" rel="up">Quoting</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Single-Quotes-1"></span><h4 class="subsubsection">3.1.2.2 Single Quotes</h4> <p>Enclosing characters in single quotes (‘<samp>'</samp>’) preserves the literal value of each character within the quotes. A single quote may not occur between single quotes, even when preceded by a backslash. </p> <hr> <span id="Double-Quotes"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#ANSI_002dC-Quoting" accesskey="n" rel="next">ANSI-C Quoting</a>, Previous: <a href="#Single-Quotes" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Single Quotes</a>, Up: <a href="#Quoting" accesskey="u" rel="up">Quoting</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Double-Quotes-1"></span><h4 class="subsubsection">3.1.2.3 Double Quotes</h4> <p>Enclosing characters in double quotes (‘<samp>"</samp>’) preserves the literal value of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of ‘<samp>$</samp>’, ‘<samp>`</samp>’, ‘<samp>\</samp>’, and, when history expansion is enabled, ‘<samp>!</samp>’. When the shell is in <small>POSIX</small> mode (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>), the ‘<samp>!</samp>’ has no special meaning within double quotes, even when history expansion is enabled. The characters ‘<samp>$</samp>’ and ‘<samp>`</samp>’ retain their special meaning within double quotes (see <a href="#Shell-Expansions">Shell Expansions</a>). The backslash retains its special meaning only when followed by one of the following characters: ‘<samp>$</samp>’, ‘<samp>`</samp>’, ‘<samp>"</samp>’, ‘<samp>\</samp>’, or <code>newline</code>. Within double quotes, backslashes that are followed by one of these characters are removed. Backslashes preceding characters without a special meaning are left unmodified. A double quote may be quoted within double quotes by preceding it with a backslash. If enabled, history expansion will be performed unless an ‘<samp>!</samp>’ appearing in double quotes is escaped using a backslash. The backslash preceding the ‘<samp>!</samp>’ is not removed. </p> <p>The special parameters ‘<samp>*</samp>’ and ‘<samp>@</samp>’ have special meaning when in double quotes (see <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>). </p> <hr> <span id="ANSI_002dC-Quoting"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Locale-Translation" accesskey="n" rel="next">Locale Translation</a>, Previous: <a href="#Double-Quotes" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Double Quotes</a>, Up: <a href="#Quoting" accesskey="u" rel="up">Quoting</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="ANSI_002dC-Quoting-1"></span><h4 class="subsubsection">3.1.2.4 ANSI-C Quoting</h4> <span id="index-quoting_002c-ANSI"></span> <p>Words of the form <code>$'<var>string</var>'</code> are treated specially. The word expands to <var>string</var>, with backslash-escaped characters replaced as specified by the ANSI C standard. Backslash escape sequences, if present, are decoded as follows: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>\a</code></dt> <dd><p>alert (bell) </p></dd> <dt><code>\b</code></dt> <dd><p>backspace </p></dd> <dt><code>\e</code></dt> <dt><code>\E</code></dt> <dd><p>an escape character (not ANSI C) </p></dd> <dt><code>\f</code></dt> <dd><p>form feed </p></dd> <dt><code>\n</code></dt> <dd><p>newline </p></dd> <dt><code>\r</code></dt> <dd><p>carriage return </p></dd> <dt><code>\t</code></dt> <dd><p>horizontal tab </p></dd> <dt><code>\v</code></dt> <dd><p>vertical tab </p></dd> <dt><code>\\</code></dt> <dd><p>backslash </p></dd> <dt><code>\'</code></dt> <dd><p>single quote </p></dd> <dt><code>\"</code></dt> <dd><p>double quote </p></dd> <dt><code>\?</code></dt> <dd><p>question mark </p></dd> <dt><code>\<var>nnn</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value <var>nnn</var> (one to three octal digits) </p></dd> <dt><code>\x<var>HH</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value <var>HH</var> (one or two hex digits) </p></dd> <dt><code>\u<var>HHHH</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value <var>HHHH</var> (one to four hex digits) </p></dd> <dt><code>\U<var>HHHHHHHH</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value <var>HHHHHHHH</var> (one to eight hex digits) </p></dd> <dt><code>\c<var>x</var></code></dt> <dd><p>a control-<var>x</var> character </p></dd> </dl> <p>The expanded result is single-quoted, as if the dollar sign had not been present. </p> <hr> <span id="Locale-Translation"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#ANSI_002dC-Quoting" accesskey="p" rel="prev">ANSI-C Quoting</a>, Up: <a href="#Quoting" accesskey="u" rel="up">Quoting</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Locale_002dSpecific-Translation"></span><h4 class="subsubsection">3.1.2.5 Locale-Specific Translation</h4> <span id="index-localization"></span> <span id="index-internationalization"></span> <span id="index-native-languages"></span> <span id="index-translation_002c-native-languages"></span> <p>A double-quoted string preceded by a dollar sign (‘<samp>$</samp>’) will cause the string to be translated according to the current locale. The <var>gettext</var> infrastructure performs the message catalog lookup and translation, using the <code>LC_MESSAGES</code> and <code>TEXTDOMAIN</code> shell variables, as explained below. See the gettext documentation for additional details. If the current locale is <code>C</code> or <code>POSIX</code>, or if there are no translations available, the dollar sign is ignored. If the string is translated and replaced, the replacement is double-quoted. </p> <span id="index-LC_005fMESSAGES"></span> <span id="index-TEXTDOMAIN"></span> <span id="index-TEXTDOMAINDIR"></span> <p>Some systems use the message catalog selected by the <code>LC_MESSAGES</code> shell variable. Others create the name of the message catalog from the value of the <code>TEXTDOMAIN</code> shell variable, possibly adding a suffix of ‘<samp>.mo</samp>’. If you use the <code>TEXTDOMAIN</code> variable, you may need to set the <code>TEXTDOMAINDIR</code> variable to the location of the message catalog files. Still others use both variables in this fashion: <code>TEXTDOMAINDIR</code>/<code>LC_MESSAGES</code>/LC_MESSAGES/<code>TEXTDOMAIN</code>.mo. </p> <hr> <span id="Comments"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Quoting" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Quoting</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Syntax" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Syntax</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Comments-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.1.3 Comments</h4> <span id="index-comments_002c-shell"></span> <p>In a non-interactive shell, or an interactive shell in which the <code>interactive_comments</code> option to the <code>shopt</code> builtin is enabled (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>), a word beginning with ‘<samp>#</samp>’ causes that word and all remaining characters on that line to be ignored. An interactive shell without the <code>interactive_comments</code> option enabled does not allow comments. The <code>interactive_comments</code> option is on by default in interactive shells. See <a href="#Interactive-Shells">Interactive Shells</a>, for a description of what makes a shell interactive. </p> <hr> <span id="Shell-Commands"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Functions" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Functions</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Syntax" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Syntax</a>, Up: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Basic Shell Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Commands-1"></span><h3 class="section">3.2 Shell Commands</h3> <span id="index-commands_002c-shell"></span> <p>A simple shell command such as <code>echo a b c</code> consists of the command itself followed by arguments, separated by spaces. </p> <p>More complex shell commands are composed of simple commands arranged together in a variety of ways: in a pipeline in which the output of one command becomes the input of a second, in a loop or conditional construct, or in some other grouping. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Reserved-Words" accesskey="1">Reserved Words</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Words that have special meaning to the shell. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Simple-Commands" accesskey="2">Simple Commands</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The most common type of command. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Pipelines" accesskey="3">Pipelines</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Connecting the input and output of several commands. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Lists" accesskey="4">Lists</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to execute commands sequentially. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Compound-Commands" accesskey="5">Compound Commands</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Shell commands for control flow. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Coprocesses" accesskey="6">Coprocesses</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Two-way communication between commands. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#GNU-Parallel" accesskey="7">GNU Parallel</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Running commands in parallel. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Reserved-Words"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Simple-Commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Simple Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Reserved-Words-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.2.1 Reserved Words</h4> <span id="index-reserved-words"></span> <p>Reserved words are words that have special meaning to the shell. They are used to begin and end the shell’s compound commands. </p> <p>The following words are recognized as reserved when unquoted and the first word of a command (see below for exceptions): </p> <table> <tr><td width="10%"><code>if</code></td><td width="10%"><code>then</code></td><td width="10%"><code>elif</code></td><td width="10%"><code>else</code></td><td width="12%"><code>fi</code></td><td width="10%"><code>time</code></td></tr> <tr><td width="10%"><code>for</code></td><td width="10%"><code>in</code></td><td width="10%"><code>until</code></td><td width="10%"><code>while</code></td><td width="12%"><code>do</code></td><td width="10%"><code>done</code></td></tr> <tr><td width="10%"><code>case</code></td><td width="10%"><code>esac</code></td><td width="10%"><code>coproc</code></td><td width="10%"><code>select</code></td><td width="12%"><code>function</code></td></tr> <tr><td width="10%"><code>{</code></td><td width="10%"><code>}</code></td><td width="10%"><code>[[</code></td><td width="10%"><code>]]</code></td><td width="12%"><code>!</code></td></tr> </table> <p><code>in</code> is recognized as a reserved word if it is the third word of a <code>case</code> or <code>select</code> command. <code>in</code> and <code>do</code> are recognized as reserved words if they are the third word in a <code>for</code> command. </p> <hr> <span id="Simple-Commands"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Pipelines" accesskey="n" rel="next">Pipelines</a>, Previous: <a href="#Reserved-Words" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Reserved Words</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Simple-Commands-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.2.2 Simple Commands</h4> <span id="index-commands_002c-simple"></span> <p>A simple command is the kind of command encountered most often. It’s just a sequence of words separated by <code>blank</code>s, terminated by one of the shell’s control operators (see <a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a>). The first word generally specifies a command to be executed, with the rest of the words being that command’s arguments. </p> <p>The return status (see <a href="#Exit-Status">Exit Status</a>) of a simple command is its exit status as provided by the <small>POSIX</small> 1003.1 <code>waitpid</code> function, or 128+<var>n</var> if the command was terminated by signal <var>n</var>. </p> <hr> <span id="Pipelines"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Lists" accesskey="n" rel="next">Lists</a>, Previous: <a href="#Simple-Commands" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Simple Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Pipelines-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.2.3 Pipelines</h4> <span id="index-pipeline"></span> <span id="index-commands_002c-pipelines"></span> <p>A <code>pipeline</code> is a sequence of one or more commands separated by one of the control operators ‘<samp>|</samp>’ or ‘<samp>|&</samp>’. </p> <span id="index-time"></span> <span id="index-_0021"></span> <span id="index-command-timing"></span> <p>The format for a pipeline is </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[time [-p]] [!] <var>command1</var> [ | or |& <var>command2</var> ] … </pre></div> <p>The output of each command in the pipeline is connected via a pipe to the input of the next command. That is, each command reads the previous command’s output. This connection is performed before any redirections specified by the command. </p> <p>If ‘<samp>|&</samp>’ is used, <var>command1</var>’s standard error, in addition to its standard output, is connected to <var>command2</var>’s standard input through the pipe; it is shorthand for <code>2>&1 |</code>. This implicit redirection of the standard error to the standard output is performed after any redirections specified by the command. </p> <p>The reserved word <code>time</code> causes timing statistics to be printed for the pipeline once it finishes. The statistics currently consist of elapsed (wall-clock) time and user and system time consumed by the command’s execution. The <samp>-p</samp> option changes the output format to that specified by <small>POSIX</small>. When the shell is in <small>POSIX</small> mode (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>), it does not recognize <code>time</code> as a reserved word if the next token begins with a ‘<samp>-</samp>’. The <code>TIMEFORMAT</code> variable may be set to a format string that specifies how the timing information should be displayed. See <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>, for a description of the available formats. The use of <code>time</code> as a reserved word permits the timing of shell builtins, shell functions, and pipelines. An external <code>time</code> command cannot time these easily. </p> <p>When the shell is in <small>POSIX</small> mode (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>), <code>time</code> may be followed by a newline. In this case, the shell displays the total user and system time consumed by the shell and its children. The <code>TIMEFORMAT</code> variable may be used to specify the format of the time information. </p> <p>If the pipeline is not executed asynchronously (see <a href="#Lists">Lists</a>), the shell waits for all commands in the pipeline to complete. </p> <p>Each command in a pipeline is executed in its own subshell, which is a separate process (see <a href="#Command-Execution-Environment">Command Execution Environment</a>). If the <code>lastpipe</code> option is enabled using the <code>shopt</code> builtin (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>), the last element of a pipeline may be run by the shell process. </p> <p>The exit status of a pipeline is the exit status of the last command in the pipeline, unless the <code>pipefail</code> option is enabled (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). If <code>pipefail</code> is enabled, the pipeline’s return status is the value of the last (rightmost) command to exit with a non-zero status, or zero if all commands exit successfully. If the reserved word ‘<samp>!</samp>’ precedes the pipeline, the exit status is the logical negation of the exit status as described above. The shell waits for all commands in the pipeline to terminate before returning a value. </p> <hr> <span id="Lists"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Compound-Commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Compound Commands</a>, Previous: <a href="#Pipelines" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Pipelines</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Lists-of-Commands"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.2.4 Lists of Commands</h4> <span id="index-commands_002c-lists"></span> <p>A <code>list</code> is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by one of the operators ‘<samp>;</samp>’, ‘<samp>&</samp>’, ‘<samp>&&</samp>’, or ‘<samp>||</samp>’, and optionally terminated by one of ‘<samp>;</samp>’, ‘<samp>&</samp>’, or a <code>newline</code>. </p> <p>Of these list operators, ‘<samp>&&</samp>’ and ‘<samp>||</samp>’ have equal precedence, followed by ‘<samp>;</samp>’ and ‘<samp>&</samp>’, which have equal precedence. </p> <p>A sequence of one or more newlines may appear in a <code>list</code> to delimit commands, equivalent to a semicolon. </p> <p>If a command is terminated by the control operator ‘<samp>&</samp>’, the shell executes the command asynchronously in a subshell. This is known as executing the command in the <var>background</var>, and these are referred to as <var>asynchronous</var> commands. The shell does not wait for the command to finish, and the return status is 0 (true). When job control is not active (see <a href="#Job-Control">Job Control</a>), the standard input for asynchronous commands, in the absence of any explicit redirections, is redirected from <code>/dev/null</code>. </p> <p>Commands separated by a ‘<samp>;</samp>’ are executed sequentially; the shell waits for each command to terminate in turn. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed. </p> <p><small>AND</small> and <small>OR</small> lists are sequences of one or more pipelines separated by the control operators ‘<samp>&&</samp>’ and ‘<samp>||</samp>’, respectively. <small>AND</small> and <small>OR</small> lists are executed with left associativity. </p> <p>An <small>AND</small> list has the form </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><var>command1</var> && <var>command2</var> </pre></div> <p><var>command2</var> is executed if, and only if, <var>command1</var> returns an exit status of zero (success). </p> <p>An <small>OR</small> list has the form </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><var>command1</var> || <var>command2</var> </pre></div> <p><var>command2</var> is executed if, and only if, <var>command1</var> returns a non-zero exit status. </p> <p>The return status of <small>AND</small> and <small>OR</small> lists is the exit status of the last command executed in the list. </p> <hr> <span id="Compound-Commands"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Coprocesses" accesskey="n" rel="next">Coprocesses</a>, Previous: <a href="#Lists" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Lists</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Compound-Commands-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.2.5 Compound Commands</h4> <span id="index-commands_002c-compound"></span> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Looping-Constructs" accesskey="1">Looping Constructs</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Shell commands for iterative action. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Conditional-Constructs" accesskey="2">Conditional Constructs</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Shell commands for conditional execution. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Command-Grouping" accesskey="3">Command Grouping</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Ways to group commands. </td></tr> </table> <p>Compound commands are the shell programming language constructs. Each construct begins with a reserved word or control operator and is terminated by a corresponding reserved word or operator. Any redirections (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>) associated with a compound command apply to all commands within that compound command unless explicitly overridden. </p> <p>In most cases a list of commands in a compound command’s description may be separated from the rest of the command by one or more newlines, and may be followed by a newline in place of a semicolon. </p> <p>Bash provides looping constructs, conditional commands, and mechanisms to group commands and execute them as a unit. </p> <hr> <span id="Looping-Constructs"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Conditional-Constructs" accesskey="n" rel="next">Conditional Constructs</a>, Up: <a href="#Compound-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Compound Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Looping-Constructs-1"></span><h4 class="subsubsection">3.2.5.1 Looping Constructs</h4> <span id="index-commands_002c-looping"></span> <p>Bash supports the following looping constructs. </p> <p>Note that wherever a ‘<samp>;</samp>’ appears in the description of a command’s syntax, it may be replaced with one or more newlines. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>until</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-until"></span> <span id="index-do"></span> <span id="index-done"></span> <p>The syntax of the <code>until</code> command is: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">until <var>test-commands</var>; do <var>consequent-commands</var>; done </pre></div> <p>Execute <var>consequent-commands</var> as long as <var>test-commands</var> has an exit status which is not zero. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed in <var>consequent-commands</var>, or zero if none was executed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>while</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-while"></span> <p>The syntax of the <code>while</code> command is: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">while <var>test-commands</var>; do <var>consequent-commands</var>; done </pre></div> <p>Execute <var>consequent-commands</var> as long as <var>test-commands</var> has an exit status of zero. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed in <var>consequent-commands</var>, or zero if none was executed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>for</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-for"></span> <p>The syntax of the <code>for</code> command is: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">for <var>name</var> [ [in [<var>words</var> …] ] ; ] do <var>commands</var>; done </pre></div> <p>Expand <var>words</var> (see <a href="#Shell-Expansions">Shell Expansions</a>), and execute <var>commands</var> once for each member in the resultant list, with <var>name</var> bound to the current member. If ‘<samp>in <var>words</var></samp>’ is not present, the <code>for</code> command executes the <var>commands</var> once for each positional parameter that is set, as if ‘<samp>in "$@"</samp>’ had been specified (see <a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a>). </p> <p>The return status is the exit status of the last command that executes. If there are no items in the expansion of <var>words</var>, no commands are executed, and the return status is zero. </p> <p>An alternate form of the <code>for</code> command is also supported: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">for (( <var>expr1</var> ; <var>expr2</var> ; <var>expr3</var> )) ; do <var>commands</var> ; done </pre></div> <p>First, the arithmetic expression <var>expr1</var> is evaluated according to the rules described below (see <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a>). The arithmetic expression <var>expr2</var> is then evaluated repeatedly until it evaluates to zero. Each time <var>expr2</var> evaluates to a non-zero value, <var>commands</var> are executed and the arithmetic expression <var>expr3</var> is evaluated. If any expression is omitted, it behaves as if it evaluates to 1. The return value is the exit status of the last command in <var>commands</var> that is executed, or false if any of the expressions is invalid. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The <code>break</code> and <code>continue</code> builtins (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>) may be used to control loop execution. </p> <hr> <span id="Conditional-Constructs"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Command-Grouping" accesskey="n" rel="next">Command Grouping</a>, Previous: <a href="#Looping-Constructs" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Looping Constructs</a>, Up: <a href="#Compound-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Compound Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Conditional-Constructs-1"></span><h4 class="subsubsection">3.2.5.2 Conditional Constructs</h4> <span id="index-commands_002c-conditional"></span> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>if</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-if"></span> <span id="index-then"></span> <span id="index-else"></span> <span id="index-elif"></span> <span id="index-fi"></span> <p>The syntax of the <code>if</code> command is: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">if <var>test-commands</var>; then <var>consequent-commands</var>; [elif <var>more-test-commands</var>; then <var>more-consequents</var>;] [else <var>alternate-consequents</var>;] fi </pre></div> <p>The <var>test-commands</var> list is executed, and if its return status is zero, the <var>consequent-commands</var> list is executed. If <var>test-commands</var> returns a non-zero status, each <code>elif</code> list is executed in turn, and if its exit status is zero, the corresponding <var>more-consequents</var> is executed and the command completes. If ‘<samp>else <var>alternate-consequents</var></samp>’ is present, and the final command in the final <code>if</code> or <code>elif</code> clause has a non-zero exit status, then <var>alternate-consequents</var> is executed. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed, or zero if no condition tested true. </p> </dd> <dt><code>case</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-case"></span> <span id="index-in"></span> <span id="index-esac"></span> <p>The syntax of the <code>case</code> command is: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">case <var>word</var> in [ [(] <var>pattern</var> [| <var>pattern</var>]…) <var>command-list</var> ;;]… esac </pre></div> <p><code>case</code> will selectively execute the <var>command-list</var> corresponding to the first <var>pattern</var> that matches <var>word</var>. The match is performed according to the rules described below in <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>. If the <code>nocasematch</code> shell option (see the description of <code>shopt</code> in <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>) is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. The ‘<samp>|</samp>’ is used to separate multiple patterns, and the ‘<samp>)</samp>’ operator terminates a pattern list. A list of patterns and an associated command-list is known as a <var>clause</var>. </p> <p>Each clause must be terminated with ‘<samp>;;</samp>’, ‘<samp>;&</samp>’, or ‘<samp>;;&</samp>’. The <var>word</var> undergoes tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal (see <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>) before matching is attempted. Each <var>pattern</var> undergoes tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. </p> <p>There may be an arbitrary number of <code>case</code> clauses, each terminated by a ‘<samp>;;</samp>’, ‘<samp>;&</samp>’, or ‘<samp>;;&</samp>’. The first pattern that matches determines the command-list that is executed. It’s a common idiom to use ‘<samp>*</samp>’ as the final pattern to define the default case, since that pattern will always match. </p> <p>Here is an example using <code>case</code> in a script that could be used to describe one interesting feature of an animal: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">echo -n "Enter the name of an animal: " read ANIMAL echo -n "The $ANIMAL has " case $ANIMAL in horse | dog | cat) echo -n "four";; man | kangaroo ) echo -n "two";; *) echo -n "an unknown number of";; esac echo " legs." </pre></div> <p>If the ‘<samp>;;</samp>’ operator is used, no subsequent matches are attempted after the first pattern match. Using ‘<samp>;&</samp>’ in place of ‘<samp>;;</samp>’ causes execution to continue with the <var>command-list</var> associated with the next clause, if any. Using ‘<samp>;;&</samp>’ in place of ‘<samp>;;</samp>’ causes the shell to test the patterns in the next clause, if any, and execute any associated <var>command-list</var> on a successful match, continuing the case statement execution as if the pattern list had not matched. </p> <p>The return status is zero if no <var>pattern</var> is matched. Otherwise, the return status is the exit status of the <var>command-list</var> executed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>select</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-select"></span> <p>The <code>select</code> construct allows the easy generation of menus. It has almost the same syntax as the <code>for</code> command: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">select <var>name</var> [in <var>words</var> …]; do <var>commands</var>; done </pre></div> <p>The list of words following <code>in</code> is expanded, generating a list of items. The set of expanded words is printed on the standard error output stream, each preceded by a number. If the ‘<samp>in <var>words</var></samp>’ is omitted, the positional parameters are printed, as if ‘<samp>in "$@"</samp>’ had been specified. The <code>PS3</code> prompt is then displayed and a line is read from the standard input. If the line consists of a number corresponding to one of the displayed words, then the value of <var>name</var> is set to that word. If the line is empty, the words and prompt are displayed again. If <code>EOF</code> is read, the <code>select</code> command completes. Any other value read causes <var>name</var> to be set to null. The line read is saved in the variable <code>REPLY</code>. </p> <p>The <var>commands</var> are executed after each selection until a <code>break</code> command is executed, at which point the <code>select</code> command completes. </p> <p>Here is an example that allows the user to pick a filename from the current directory, and displays the name and index of the file selected. </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">select fname in *; do echo you picked $fname \($REPLY\) break; done </pre></div> </dd> <dt><code>((…))</code></dt> <dd><div class="example"> <pre class="example">(( <var>expression</var> )) </pre></div> <p>The arithmetic <var>expression</var> is evaluated according to the rules described below (see <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a>). If the value of the expression is non-zero, the return status is 0; otherwise the return status is 1. This is exactly equivalent to </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">let "<var>expression</var>" </pre></div> <p>See <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>, for a full description of the <code>let</code> builtin. </p> </dd> <dt><code>[[…]]</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-_005b_005b"></span> <span id="index-_005d_005d"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">[[ <var>expression</var> ]] </pre></div> <p>Return a status of 0 or 1 depending on the evaluation of the conditional expression <var>expression</var>. Expressions are composed of the primaries described below in <a href="#Bash-Conditional-Expressions">Bash Conditional Expressions</a>. Word splitting and filename expansion are not performed on the words between the <code>[[</code> and <code>]]</code>; tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, arithmetic expansion, command substitution, process substitution, and quote removal are performed. Conditional operators such as ‘<samp>-f</samp>’ must be unquoted to be recognized as primaries. </p> <p>When used with <code>[[</code>, the ‘<samp><</samp>’ and ‘<samp>></samp>’ operators sort lexicographically using the current locale. </p> <p>When the ‘<samp>==</samp>’ and ‘<samp>!=</samp>’ operators are used, the string to the right of the operator is considered a pattern and matched according to the rules described below in <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>, as if the <code>extglob</code> shell option were enabled. The ‘<samp>=</samp>’ operator is identical to ‘<samp>==</samp>’. If the <code>nocasematch</code> shell option (see the description of <code>shopt</code> in <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>) is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. The return value is 0 if the string matches (‘<samp>==</samp>’) or does not match (‘<samp>!=</samp>’) the pattern, and 1 otherwise. Any part of the pattern may be quoted to force the quoted portion to be matched as a string. </p> <p>An additional binary operator, ‘<samp>=~</samp>’, is available, with the same precedence as ‘<samp>==</samp>’ and ‘<samp>!=</samp>’. When it is used, the string to the right of the operator is considered a <small>POSIX</small> extended regular expression and matched accordingly (using the <small>POSIX</small> <code>regcomp</code> and <code>regexec</code> interfaces usually described in <i>regex</i>(3)). The return value is 0 if the string matches the pattern, and 1 otherwise. If the regular expression is syntactically incorrect, the conditional expression’s return value is 2. If the <code>nocasematch</code> shell option (see the description of <code>shopt</code> in <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>) is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. Any part of the pattern may be quoted to force the quoted portion to be matched as a string. Bracket expressions in regular expressions must be treated carefully, since normal quoting characters lose their meanings between brackets. If the pattern is stored in a shell variable, quoting the variable expansion forces the entire pattern to be matched as a string. </p> <p>The pattern will match if it matches any part of the string. Anchor the pattern using the ‘<samp>^</samp>’ and ‘<samp>$</samp>’ regular expression operators to force it to match the entire string. The array variable <code>BASH_REMATCH</code> records which parts of the string matched the pattern. The element of <code>BASH_REMATCH</code> with index 0 contains the portion of the string matching the entire regular expression. Substrings matched by parenthesized subexpressions within the regular expression are saved in the remaining <code>BASH_REMATCH</code> indices. The element of <code>BASH_REMATCH</code> with index <var>n</var> is the portion of the string matching the <var>n</var>th parenthesized subexpression. </p> <p>For example, the following will match a line (stored in the shell variable <var>line</var>) if there is a sequence of characters anywhere in the value consisting of any number, including zero, of characters in the <code>space</code> character class, zero or one instances of ‘<samp>a</samp>’, then a ‘<samp>b</samp>’: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[[ $line =~ [[:space:]]*(a)?b ]] </pre></div> <p>That means values like ‘<samp>aab</samp>’ and ‘<samp> aaaaaab</samp>’ will match, as will a line containing a ‘<samp>b</samp>’ anywhere in its value. </p> <p>Storing the regular expression in a shell variable is often a useful way to avoid problems with quoting characters that are special to the shell. It is sometimes difficult to specify a regular expression literally without using quotes, or to keep track of the quoting used by regular expressions while paying attention to the shell’s quote removal. Using a shell variable to store the pattern decreases these problems. For example, the following is equivalent to the above: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">pattern='[[:space:]]*(a)?b' [[ $line =~ $pattern ]] </pre></div> <p>If you want to match a character that’s special to the regular expression grammar, it has to be quoted to remove its special meaning. This means that in the pattern ‘<samp>xxx.txt</samp>’, the ‘<samp>.</samp>’ matches any character in the string (its usual regular expression meaning), but in the pattern ‘<samp>"xxx.txt"</samp>’ it can only match a literal ‘<samp>.</samp>’. Shell programmers should take special care with backslashes, since backslashes are used both by the shell and regular expressions to remove the special meaning from the following character. The following two sets of commands are <em>not</em> equivalent: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">pattern='\.' [[ . =~ $pattern ]] [[ . =~ \. ]] [[ . =~ "$pattern" ]] [[ . =~ '\.' ]] </pre></div> <p>The first two matches will succeed, but the second two will not, because in the second two the backslash will be part of the pattern to be matched. In the first two examples, the backslash removes the special meaning from ‘<samp>.</samp>’, so the literal ‘<samp>.</samp>’ matches. If the string in the first examples were anything other than ‘<samp>.</samp>’, say ‘<samp>a</samp>’, the pattern would not match, because the quoted ‘<samp>.</samp>’ in the pattern loses its special meaning of matching any single character. </p> <p>Expressions may be combined using the following operators, listed in decreasing order of precedence: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>( <var>expression</var> )</code></dt> <dd><p>Returns the value of <var>expression</var>. This may be used to override the normal precedence of operators. </p> </dd> <dt><code>! <var>expression</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>expression</var> is false. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>expression1</var> && <var>expression2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if both <var>expression1</var> and <var>expression2</var> are true. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>expression1</var> || <var>expression2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if either <var>expression1</var> or <var>expression2</var> is true. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The <code>&&</code> and <code>||</code> operators do not evaluate <var>expression2</var> if the value of <var>expression1</var> is sufficient to determine the return value of the entire conditional expression. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Command-Grouping"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Conditional-Constructs" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Conditional Constructs</a>, Up: <a href="#Compound-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Compound Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Grouping-Commands"></span><h4 class="subsubsection">3.2.5.3 Grouping Commands</h4> <span id="index-commands_002c-grouping"></span> <p>Bash provides two ways to group a list of commands to be executed as a unit. When commands are grouped, redirections may be applied to the entire command list. For example, the output of all the commands in the list may be redirected to a single stream. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>()</code></dt> <dd><div class="example"> <pre class="example">( <var>list</var> ) </pre></div> <p>Placing a list of commands between parentheses causes a subshell environment to be created (see <a href="#Command-Execution-Environment">Command Execution Environment</a>), and each of the commands in <var>list</var> to be executed in that subshell. Since the <var>list</var> is executed in a subshell, variable assignments do not remain in effect after the subshell completes. </p> </dd> <dt><code>{}</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-_007b"></span> <span id="index-_007d"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">{ <var>list</var>; } </pre></div> <p>Placing a list of commands between curly braces causes the list to be executed in the current shell context. No subshell is created. The semicolon (or newline) following <var>list</var> is required. </p></dd> </dl> <p>In addition to the creation of a subshell, there is a subtle difference between these two constructs due to historical reasons. The braces are <code>reserved words</code>, so they must be separated from the <var>list</var> by <code>blank</code>s or other shell metacharacters. The parentheses are <code>operators</code>, and are recognized as separate tokens by the shell even if they are not separated from the <var>list</var> by whitespace. </p> <p>The exit status of both of these constructs is the exit status of <var>list</var>. </p> <hr> <span id="Coprocesses"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#GNU-Parallel" accesskey="n" rel="next">GNU Parallel</a>, Previous: <a href="#Compound-Commands" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Compound Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Coprocesses-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.2.6 Coprocesses</h4> <span id="index-coprocess"></span> <p>A <code>coprocess</code> is a shell command preceded by the <code>coproc</code> reserved word. A coprocess is executed asynchronously in a subshell, as if the command had been terminated with the ‘<samp>&</samp>’ control operator, with a two-way pipe established between the executing shell and the coprocess. </p> <p>The format for a coprocess is: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">coproc [<var>NAME</var>] <var>command</var> [<var>redirections</var>] </pre></div> <p>This creates a coprocess named <var>NAME</var>. If <var>NAME</var> is not supplied, the default name is <var>COPROC</var>. <var>NAME</var> must not be supplied if <var>command</var> is a simple command (see <a href="#Simple-Commands">Simple Commands</a>); otherwise, it is interpreted as the first word of the simple command. </p> <p>When the coprocess is executed, the shell creates an array variable (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>) named <code>NAME</code> in the context of the executing shell. The standard output of <var>command</var> is connected via a pipe to a file descriptor in the executing shell, and that file descriptor is assigned to <code>NAME</code>[0]. The standard input of <var>command</var> is connected via a pipe to a file descriptor in the executing shell, and that file descriptor is assigned to <code>NAME</code>[1]. This pipe is established before any redirections specified by the command (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>). The file descriptors can be utilized as arguments to shell commands and redirections using standard word expansions. Other than those created to execute command and process substitutions, the file descriptors are not available in subshells. </p> <p>The process ID of the shell spawned to execute the coprocess is available as the value of the variable <code>NAME</code>_PID. The <code>wait</code> builtin command may be used to wait for the coprocess to terminate. </p> <p>Since the coprocess is created as an asynchronous command, the <code>coproc</code> command always returns success. The return status of a coprocess is the exit status of <var>command</var>. </p> <hr> <span id="GNU-Parallel"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Coprocesses" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Coprocesses</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="GNU-Parallel-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.2.7 GNU Parallel</h4> <p>There are ways to run commands in parallel that are not built into Bash. GNU Parallel is a tool to do just that. </p> <p>GNU Parallel, as its name suggests, can be used to build and run commands in parallel. You may run the same command with different arguments, whether they are filenames, usernames, hostnames, or lines read from files. GNU Parallel provides shorthand references to many of the most common operations (input lines, various portions of the input line, different ways to specify the input source, and so on). Parallel can replace <code>xargs</code> or feed commands from its input sources to several different instances of Bash. </p> <p>For a complete description, refer to the GNU Parallel documentation. A few examples should provide a brief introduction to its use. </p> <p>For example, it is easy to replace <code>xargs</code> to gzip all html files in the current directory and its subdirectories: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">find . -type f -name '*.html' -print | parallel gzip </pre></div> <p>If you need to protect special characters such as newlines in file names, use find’s <samp>-print0</samp> option and parallel’s <samp>-0</samp> option. </p> <p>You can use Parallel to move files from the current directory when the number of files is too large to process with one <code>mv</code> invocation: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">printf '%s\n' * | parallel mv {} destdir </pre></div> <p>As you can see, the {} is replaced with each line read from standard input. While using <code>ls</code> will work in most instances, it is not sufficient to deal with all filenames. <code>printf</code> is a shell builtin, and therefore is not subject to the kernel’s limit on the number of arguments to a program, so you can use ‘<samp>*</samp>’ (but see below about the <code>dotglob</code> shell option). If you need to accommodate special characters in filenames, you can use </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">printf '%s\0' * | parallel -0 mv {} destdir </pre></div> <p>as alluded to above. </p> <p>This will run as many <code>mv</code> commands as there are files in the current directory. You can emulate a parallel <code>xargs</code> by adding the <samp>-X</samp> option: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">printf '%s\0' * | parallel -0 -X mv {} destdir </pre></div> <p>(You may have to modify the pattern if you have the <code>dotglob</code> option enabled.) </p> <p>GNU Parallel can replace certain common idioms that operate on lines read from a file (in this case, filenames listed one per line): </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"> while IFS= read -r x; do do-something1 "$x" "config-$x" do-something2 < "$x" done < file | process-output </pre></div> <p>with a more compact syntax reminiscent of lambdas: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">cat list | parallel "do-something1 {} config-{} ; do-something2 < {}" | process-output </pre></div> <p>Parallel provides a built-in mechanism to remove filename extensions, which lends itself to batch file transformations or renaming: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">ls *.gz | parallel -j+0 "zcat {} | bzip2 >{.}.bz2 && rm {}" </pre></div> <p>This will recompress all files in the current directory with names ending in .gz using bzip2, running one job per CPU (-j+0) in parallel. (We use <code>ls</code> for brevity here; using <code>find</code> as above is more robust in the face of filenames containing unexpected characters.) Parallel can take arguments from the command line; the above can also be written as </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">parallel "zcat {} | bzip2 >{.}.bz2 && rm {}" ::: *.gz </pre></div> <p>If a command generates output, you may want to preserve the input order in the output. For instance, the following command </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">{ echo foss.org.my ; echo debian.org ; echo freenetproject.org ; } | parallel traceroute </pre></div> <p>will display as output the traceroute invocation that finishes first. Adding the <samp>-k</samp> option </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">{ echo foss.org.my ; echo debian.org ; echo freenetproject.org ; } | parallel -k traceroute </pre></div> <p>will ensure that the output of <code>traceroute foss.org.my</code> is displayed first. </p> <p>Finally, Parallel can be used to run a sequence of shell commands in parallel, similar to ‘<samp>cat file | bash</samp>’. It is not uncommon to take a list of filenames, create a series of shell commands to operate on them, and feed that list of commands to a shell. Parallel can speed this up. Assuming that <samp>file</samp> contains a list of shell commands, one per line, </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">parallel -j 10 < file </pre></div> <p>will evaluate the commands using the shell (since no explicit command is supplied as an argument), in blocks of ten shell jobs at a time. </p> <hr> <span id="Shell-Functions"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Parameters" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Parameters</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Commands" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Basic Shell Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Functions-1"></span><h3 class="section">3.3 Shell Functions</h3> <span id="index-shell-function"></span> <span id="index-functions_002c-shell"></span> <p>Shell functions are a way to group commands for later execution using a single name for the group. They are executed just like a "regular" command. When the name of a shell function is used as a simple command name, the list of commands associated with that function name is executed. Shell functions are executed in the current shell context; no new process is created to interpret them. </p> <p>Functions are declared using this syntax: <span id="index-function"></span> </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><var>fname</var> () <var>compound-command</var> [ <var>redirections</var> ] </pre></div> <p>or </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">function <var>fname</var> [()] <var>compound-command</var> [ <var>redirections</var> ] </pre></div> <p>This defines a shell function named <var>fname</var>. The reserved word <code>function</code> is optional. If the <code>function</code> reserved word is supplied, the parentheses are optional. The <var>body</var> of the function is the compound command <var>compound-command</var> (see <a href="#Compound-Commands">Compound Commands</a>). That command is usually a <var>list</var> enclosed between { and }, but may be any compound command listed above, with one exception: If the <code>function</code> reserved word is used, but the parentheses are not supplied, the braces are required. <var>compound-command</var> is executed whenever <var>fname</var> is specified as the name of a command. When the shell is in <small>POSIX</small> mode (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>), <var>fname</var> must be a valid shell <var>name</var> and may not be the same as one of the special builtins (see <a href="#Special-Builtins">Special Builtins</a>). In default mode, a function name can be any unquoted shell word that does not contain ‘<samp>$</samp>’. Any redirections (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>) associated with the shell function are performed when the function is executed. A function definition may be deleted using the <samp>-f</samp> option to the <code>unset</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). </p> <p>The exit status of a function definition is zero unless a syntax error occurs or a readonly function with the same name already exists. When executed, the exit status of a function is the exit status of the last command executed in the body. </p> <p>Note that for historical reasons, in the most common usage the curly braces that surround the body of the function must be separated from the body by <code>blank</code>s or newlines. This is because the braces are reserved words and are only recognized as such when they are separated from the command list by whitespace or another shell metacharacter. Also, when using the braces, the <var>list</var> must be terminated by a semicolon, a ‘<samp>&</samp>’, or a newline. </p> <p>When a function is executed, the arguments to the function become the positional parameters during its execution (see <a href="#Positional-Parameters">Positional Parameters</a>). The special parameter ‘<samp>#</samp>’ that expands to the number of positional parameters is updated to reflect the change. Special parameter <code>0</code> is unchanged. The first element of the <code>FUNCNAME</code> variable is set to the name of the function while the function is executing. </p> <p>All other aspects of the shell execution environment are identical between a function and its caller with these exceptions: the <code>DEBUG</code> and <code>RETURN</code> traps are not inherited unless the function has been given the <code>trace</code> attribute using the <code>declare</code> builtin or the <code>-o functrace</code> option has been enabled with the <code>set</code> builtin, (in which case all functions inherit the <code>DEBUG</code> and <code>RETURN</code> traps), and the <code>ERR</code> trap is not inherited unless the <code>-o errtrace</code> shell option has been enabled. See <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>, for the description of the <code>trap</code> builtin. </p> <p>The <code>FUNCNEST</code> variable, if set to a numeric value greater than 0, defines a maximum function nesting level. Function invocations that exceed the limit cause the entire command to abort. </p> <p>If the builtin command <code>return</code> is executed in a function, the function completes and execution resumes with the next command after the function call. Any command associated with the <code>RETURN</code> trap is executed before execution resumes. When a function completes, the values of the positional parameters and the special parameter ‘<samp>#</samp>’ are restored to the values they had prior to the function’s execution. If a numeric argument is given to <code>return</code>, that is the function’s return status; otherwise the function’s return status is the exit status of the last command executed before the <code>return</code>. </p> <p>Variables local to the function may be declared with the <code>local</code> builtin. These variables are visible only to the function and the commands it invokes. This is particularly important when a shell function calls other functions. </p> <p>Local variables "shadow" variables with the same name declared at previous scopes. For instance, a local variable declared in a function hides a global variable of the same name: references and assignments refer to the local variable, leaving the global variable unmodified. When the function returns, the global variable is once again visible. </p> <p>The shell uses <var>dynamic scoping</var> to control a variable’s visibility within functions. With dynamic scoping, visible variables and their values are a result of the sequence of function calls that caused execution to reach the current function. The value of a variable that a function sees depends on its value within its caller, if any, whether that caller is the "global" scope or another shell function. This is also the value that a local variable declaration "shadows", and the value that is restored when the function returns. </p> <p>For example, if a variable <var>var</var> is declared as local in function <var>func1</var>, and <var>func1</var> calls another function <var>func2</var>, references to <var>var</var> made from within <var>func2</var> will resolve to the local variable <var>var</var> from <var>func1</var>, shadowing any global variable named <var>var</var>. </p> <p>The following script demonstrates this behavior. When executed, the script displays </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">In func2, var = func1 local </pre></div> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">func1() { local var='func1 local' func2 } func2() { echo "In func2, var = $var" } var=global func1 </pre></div> <p>The <code>unset</code> builtin also acts using the same dynamic scope: if a variable is local to the current scope, <code>unset</code> will unset it; otherwise the unset will refer to the variable found in any calling scope as described above. If a variable at the current local scope is unset, it will remain so until it is reset in that scope or until the function returns. Once the function returns, any instance of the variable at a previous scope will become visible. If the unset acts on a variable at a previous scope, any instance of a variable with that name that had been shadowed will become visible. </p> <p>Function names and definitions may be listed with the <samp>-f</samp> option to the <code>declare</code> (<code>typeset</code>) builtin command (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). The <samp>-F</samp> option to <code>declare</code> or <code>typeset</code> will list the function names only (and optionally the source file and line number, if the <code>extdebug</code> shell option is enabled). Functions may be exported so that subshells automatically have them defined with the <samp>-f</samp> option to the <code>export</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). </p> <p>Functions may be recursive. The <code>FUNCNEST</code> variable may be used to limit the depth of the function call stack and restrict the number of function invocations. By default, no limit is placed on the number of recursive calls. </p> <hr> <span id="Shell-Parameters"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Expansions</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Functions" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Functions</a>, Up: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Basic Shell Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Parameters-1"></span><h3 class="section">3.4 Shell Parameters</h3> <span id="index-parameters"></span> <span id="index-variable_002c-shell"></span> <span id="index-shell-variable"></span> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Positional-Parameters" accesskey="1">Positional Parameters</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The shell’s command-line arguments. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Special-Parameters" accesskey="2">Special Parameters</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Parameters denoted by special characters. </td></tr> </table> <p>A <var>parameter</var> is an entity that stores values. It can be a <code>name</code>, a number, or one of the special characters listed below. A <var>variable</var> is a parameter denoted by a <code>name</code>. A variable has a <var>value</var> and zero or more <var>attributes</var>. Attributes are assigned using the <code>declare</code> builtin command (see the description of the <code>declare</code> builtin in <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </p> <p>A parameter is set if it has been assigned a value. The null string is a valid value. Once a variable is set, it may be unset only by using the <code>unset</code> builtin command. </p> <p>A variable may be assigned to by a statement of the form </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><var>name</var>=[<var>value</var>] </pre></div> <p>If <var>value</var> is not given, the variable is assigned the null string. All <var>value</var>s undergo tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal (detailed below). If the variable has its <code>integer</code> attribute set, then <var>value</var> is evaluated as an arithmetic expression even if the <code>$((…))</code> expansion is not used (see <a href="#Arithmetic-Expansion">Arithmetic Expansion</a>). Word splitting is not performed, with the exception of <code>"$@"</code> as explained below. Filename expansion is not performed. Assignment statements may also appear as arguments to the <code>alias</code>, <code>declare</code>, <code>typeset</code>, <code>export</code>, <code>readonly</code>, and <code>local</code> builtin commands (<var>declaration</var> commands). When in <small>POSIX</small> mode (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>), these builtins may appear in a command after one or more instances of the <code>command</code> builtin and retain these assignment statement properties. </p> <p>In the context where an assignment statement is assigning a value to a shell variable or array index (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>), the ‘<samp>+=</samp>’ operator can be used to append to or add to the variable’s previous value. This includes arguments to builtin commands such as <code>declare</code> that accept assignment statements (<var>declaration</var> commands). When ‘<samp>+=</samp>’ is applied to a variable for which the <var>integer</var> attribute has been set, <var>value</var> is evaluated as an arithmetic expression and added to the variable’s current value, which is also evaluated. When ‘<samp>+=</samp>’ is applied to an array variable using compound assignment (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>), the variable’s value is not unset (as it is when using ‘<samp>=</samp>’), and new values are appended to the array beginning at one greater than the array’s maximum index (for indexed arrays), or added as additional key-value pairs in an associative array. When applied to a string-valued variable, <var>value</var> is expanded and appended to the variable’s value. </p> <p>A variable can be assigned the <var>nameref</var> attribute using the <samp>-n</samp> option to the <code>declare</code> or <code>local</code> builtin commands (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>) to create a <var>nameref</var>, or a reference to another variable. This allows variables to be manipulated indirectly. Whenever the nameref variable is referenced, assigned to, unset, or has its attributes modified (other than using or changing the nameref attribute itself), the operation is actually performed on the variable specified by the nameref variable’s value. A nameref is commonly used within shell functions to refer to a variable whose name is passed as an argument to the function. For instance, if a variable name is passed to a shell function as its first argument, running </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">declare -n ref=$1 </pre></div> <p>inside the function creates a nameref variable <var>ref</var> whose value is the variable name passed as the first argument. References and assignments to <var>ref</var>, and changes to its attributes, are treated as references, assignments, and attribute modifications to the variable whose name was passed as <code>$1</code>. </p> <p>If the control variable in a <code>for</code> loop has the nameref attribute, the list of words can be a list of shell variables, and a name reference will be established for each word in the list, in turn, when the loop is executed. Array variables cannot be given the nameref attribute. However, nameref variables can reference array variables and subscripted array variables. Namerefs can be unset using the <samp>-n</samp> option to the <code>unset</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). Otherwise, if <code>unset</code> is executed with the name of a nameref variable as an argument, the variable referenced by the nameref variable will be unset. </p> <hr> <span id="Positional-Parameters"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Special-Parameters" accesskey="n" rel="next">Special Parameters</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Parameters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Parameters</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Positional-Parameters-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.4.1 Positional Parameters</h4> <span id="index-parameters_002c-positional"></span> <p>A <var>positional parameter</var> is a parameter denoted by one or more digits, other than the single digit <code>0</code>. Positional parameters are assigned from the shell’s arguments when it is invoked, and may be reassigned using the <code>set</code> builtin command. Positional parameter <code>N</code> may be referenced as <code>${N}</code>, or as <code>$N</code> when <code>N</code> consists of a single digit. Positional parameters may not be assigned to with assignment statements. The <code>set</code> and <code>shift</code> builtins are used to set and unset them (see <a href="#Shell-Builtin-Commands">Shell Builtin Commands</a>). The positional parameters are temporarily replaced when a shell function is executed (see <a href="#Shell-Functions">Shell Functions</a>). </p> <p>When a positional parameter consisting of more than a single digit is expanded, it must be enclosed in braces. </p> <hr> <span id="Special-Parameters"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Positional-Parameters" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Positional Parameters</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Parameters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Parameters</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Special-Parameters-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.4.2 Special Parameters</h4> <span id="index-parameters_002c-special"></span> <p>The shell treats several parameters specially. These parameters may only be referenced; assignment to them is not allowed. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>*</code> <span id="index-_002a"></span> </dt> <dd><span id="index-_0024_002a"></span> <p>($*) Expands to the positional parameters, starting from one. When the expansion is not within double quotes, each positional parameter expands to a separate word. In contexts where it is performed, those words are subject to further word splitting and filename expansion. When the expansion occurs within double quotes, it expands to a single word with the value of each parameter separated by the first character of the <code>IFS</code> special variable. That is, <code>"$*"</code> is equivalent to <code>"$1<var>c</var>$2<var>c</var>…"</code>, where <var>c</var> is the first character of the value of the <code>IFS</code> variable. If <code>IFS</code> is unset, the parameters are separated by spaces. If <code>IFS</code> is null, the parameters are joined without intervening separators. </p> </dd> <dt><code>@</code> <span id="index-_0040"></span> </dt> <dd><span id="index-_0024_0040"></span> <p>($@) Expands to the positional parameters, starting from one. In contexts where word splitting is performed, this expands each positional parameter to a separate word; if not within double quotes, these words are subject to word splitting. In contexts where word splitting is not performed, this expands to a single word with each positional parameter separated by a space. When the expansion occurs within double quotes, and word splitting is performed, each parameter expands to a separate word. That is, <code>"$@"</code> is equivalent to <code>"$1" "$2" …</code>. If the double-quoted expansion occurs within a word, the expansion of the first parameter is joined with the beginning part of the original word, and the expansion of the last parameter is joined with the last part of the original word. When there are no positional parameters, <code>"$@"</code> and <code>$@</code> expand to nothing (i.e., they are removed). </p> </dd> <dt><code>#</code> <span id="index-_0023"></span> </dt> <dd><span id="index-_0024_0023"></span> <p>($#) Expands to the number of positional parameters in decimal. </p> </dd> <dt><code>?</code> <span id="index-_003f"></span> </dt> <dd><span id="index-_0024_003f"></span> <p>($?) Expands to the exit status of the most recently executed foreground pipeline. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-</code> <span id="index-_002d"></span> </dt> <dd><span id="index-_0024_002d"></span> <p>($-, a hyphen.) Expands to the current option flags as specified upon invocation, by the <code>set</code> builtin command, or those set by the shell itself (such as the <samp>-i</samp> option). </p> </dd> <dt><code>$</code> <span id="index-_0024"></span> </dt> <dd><span id="index-_0024_0024"></span> <p>($$) Expands to the process <small>ID</small> of the shell. In a <code>()</code> subshell, it expands to the process <small>ID</small> of the invoking shell, not the subshell. </p> </dd> <dt><code>!</code> <span id="index-_0021-1"></span> </dt> <dd><span id="index-_0024_0021"></span> <p>($!) Expands to the process <small>ID</small> of the job most recently placed into the background, whether executed as an asynchronous command or using the <code>bg</code> builtin (see <a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>0</code> <span id="index-0"></span> </dt> <dd><span id="index-_00240"></span> <p>($0) Expands to the name of the shell or shell script. This is set at shell initialization. If Bash is invoked with a file of commands (see <a href="#Shell-Scripts">Shell Scripts</a>), <code>$0</code> is set to the name of that file. If Bash is started with the <samp>-c</samp> option (see <a href="#Invoking-Bash">Invoking Bash</a>), then <code>$0</code> is set to the first argument after the string to be executed, if one is present. Otherwise, it is set to the filename used to invoke Bash, as given by argument zero. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Shell-Expansions"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Redirections" accesskey="n" rel="next">Redirections</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Parameters" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Parameters</a>, Up: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Basic Shell Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Expansions-1"></span><h3 class="section">3.5 Shell Expansions</h3> <span id="index-expansion"></span> <p>Expansion is performed on the command line after it has been split into <code>token</code>s. There are seven kinds of expansion performed: </p> <ul> <li> brace expansion </li><li> tilde expansion </li><li> parameter and variable expansion </li><li> command substitution </li><li> arithmetic expansion </li><li> word splitting </li><li> filename expansion </li></ul> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Brace-Expansion" accesskey="1">Brace Expansion</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Expansion of expressions within braces. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Tilde-Expansion" accesskey="2">Tilde Expansion</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Expansion of the ~ character. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion" accesskey="3">Shell Parameter Expansion</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How Bash expands variables to their values. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Command-Substitution" accesskey="4">Command Substitution</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Using the output of a command as an argument. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Arithmetic-Expansion" accesskey="5">Arithmetic Expansion</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to use arithmetic in shell expansions. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Process-Substitution" accesskey="6">Process Substitution</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A way to write and read to and from a command. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Word-Splitting" accesskey="7">Word Splitting</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How the results of expansion are split into separate arguments. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Filename-Expansion" accesskey="8">Filename Expansion</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A shorthand for specifying filenames matching patterns. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Quote-Removal" accesskey="9">Quote Removal</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How and when quote characters are removed from words. </td></tr> </table> <p>The order of expansions is: brace expansion; tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, arithmetic expansion, and command substitution (done in a left-to-right fashion); word splitting; and filename expansion. </p> <p>On systems that can support it, there is an additional expansion available: <var>process substitution</var>. This is performed at the same time as tilde, parameter, variable, and arithmetic expansion and command substitution. </p> <p>After these expansions are performed, quote characters present in the original word are removed unless they have been quoted themselves (<var>quote removal</var>). </p> <p>Only brace expansion, word splitting, and filename expansion can increase the number of words of the expansion; other expansions expand a single word to a single word. The only exceptions to this are the expansions of <code>"$@"</code> and <code>$*</code> (see <a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a>), and <code>"${<var>name</var>[@]}"</code> and <code>${<var>name</var>[*]}</code> (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>). </p> <p>After all expansions, <code>quote removal</code> (see <a href="#Quote-Removal">Quote Removal</a>) is performed. </p> <hr> <span id="Brace-Expansion"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Tilde-Expansion" accesskey="n" rel="next">Tilde Expansion</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Expansions</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Brace-Expansion-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.5.1 Brace Expansion</h4> <span id="index-brace-expansion"></span> <span id="index-expansion_002c-brace"></span> <p>Brace expansion is a mechanism by which arbitrary strings may be generated. This mechanism is similar to <var>filename expansion</var> (see <a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a>), but the filenames generated need not exist. Patterns to be brace expanded take the form of an optional <var>preamble</var>, followed by either a series of comma-separated strings or a sequence expression between a pair of braces, followed by an optional <var>postscript</var>. The preamble is prefixed to each string contained within the braces, and the postscript is then appended to each resulting string, expanding left to right. </p> <p>Brace expansions may be nested. The results of each expanded string are not sorted; left to right order is preserved. For example, </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">bash$ echo a{d,c,b}e ade ace abe </pre></div> <p>A sequence expression takes the form <code>{<var>x</var>..<var>y</var>[..<var>incr</var>]}</code>, where <var>x</var> and <var>y</var> are either integers or single characters, and <var>incr</var>, an optional increment, is an integer. When integers are supplied, the expression expands to each number between <var>x</var> and <var>y</var>, inclusive. Supplied integers may be prefixed with ‘<samp>0</samp>’ to force each term to have the same width. When either <var>x</var> or <var>y</var> begins with a zero, the shell attempts to force all generated terms to contain the same number of digits, zero-padding where necessary. When characters are supplied, the expression expands to each character lexicographically between <var>x</var> and <var>y</var>, inclusive, using the default C locale. Note that both <var>x</var> and <var>y</var> must be of the same type. When the increment is supplied, it is used as the difference between each term. The default increment is 1 or -1 as appropriate. </p> <p>Brace expansion is performed before any other expansions, and any characters special to other expansions are preserved in the result. It is strictly textual. Bash does not apply any syntactic interpretation to the context of the expansion or the text between the braces. </p> <p>A correctly-formed brace expansion must contain unquoted opening and closing braces, and at least one unquoted comma or a valid sequence expression. Any incorrectly formed brace expansion is left unchanged. </p> <p>A { or ‘<samp>,</samp>’ may be quoted with a backslash to prevent its being considered part of a brace expression. To avoid conflicts with parameter expansion, the string ‘<samp>${</samp>’ is not considered eligible for brace expansion, and inhibits brace expansion until the closing ‘<samp>}</samp>’. </p> <p>This construct is typically used as shorthand when the common prefix of the strings to be generated is longer than in the above example: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">mkdir /usr/local/src/bash/{old,new,dist,bugs} </pre></div> <p>or </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">chown root /usr/{ucb/{ex,edit},lib/{ex?.?*,how_ex}} </pre></div> <hr> <span id="Tilde-Expansion"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>, Previous: <a href="#Brace-Expansion" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Brace Expansion</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Expansions</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Tilde-Expansion-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.5.2 Tilde Expansion</h4> <span id="index-tilde-expansion"></span> <span id="index-expansion_002c-tilde"></span> <p>If a word begins with an unquoted tilde character (‘<samp>~</samp>’), all of the characters up to the first unquoted slash (or all characters, if there is no unquoted slash) are considered a <var>tilde-prefix</var>. If none of the characters in the tilde-prefix are quoted, the characters in the tilde-prefix following the tilde are treated as a possible <var>login name</var>. If this login name is the null string, the tilde is replaced with the value of the <code>HOME</code> shell variable. If <code>HOME</code> is unset, the home directory of the user executing the shell is substituted instead. Otherwise, the tilde-prefix is replaced with the home directory associated with the specified login name. </p> <p>If the tilde-prefix is ‘<samp>~+</samp>’, the value of the shell variable <code>PWD</code> replaces the tilde-prefix. If the tilde-prefix is ‘<samp>~-</samp>’, the value of the shell variable <code>OLDPWD</code>, if it is set, is substituted. </p> <p>If the characters following the tilde in the tilde-prefix consist of a number <var>N</var>, optionally prefixed by a ‘<samp>+</samp>’ or a ‘<samp>-</samp>’, the tilde-prefix is replaced with the corresponding element from the directory stack, as it would be displayed by the <code>dirs</code> builtin invoked with the characters following tilde in the tilde-prefix as an argument (see <a href="#The-Directory-Stack">The Directory Stack</a>). If the tilde-prefix, sans the tilde, consists of a number without a leading ‘<samp>+</samp>’ or ‘<samp>-</samp>’, ‘<samp>+</samp>’ is assumed. </p> <p>If the login name is invalid, or the tilde expansion fails, the word is left unchanged. </p> <p>Each variable assignment is checked for unquoted tilde-prefixes immediately following a ‘<samp>:</samp>’ or the first ‘<samp>=</samp>’. In these cases, tilde expansion is also performed. Consequently, one may use filenames with tildes in assignments to <code>PATH</code>, <code>MAILPATH</code>, and <code>CDPATH</code>, and the shell assigns the expanded value. </p> <p>The following table shows how Bash treats unquoted tilde-prefixes: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>~</code></dt> <dd><p>The value of <code>$HOME</code> </p></dd> <dt><code>~/foo</code></dt> <dd><p><samp>$HOME/foo</samp> </p> </dd> <dt><code>~fred/foo</code></dt> <dd><p>The subdirectory <code>foo</code> of the home directory of the user <code>fred</code> </p> </dd> <dt><code>~+/foo</code></dt> <dd><p><samp>$PWD/foo</samp> </p> </dd> <dt><code>~-/foo</code></dt> <dd><p><samp>${OLDPWD-'~-'}/foo</samp> </p> </dd> <dt><code>~<var>N</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The string that would be displayed by ‘<samp>dirs +<var>N</var></samp>’ </p> </dd> <dt><code>~+<var>N</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The string that would be displayed by ‘<samp>dirs +<var>N</var></samp>’ </p> </dd> <dt><code>~-<var>N</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The string that would be displayed by ‘<samp>dirs -<var>N</var></samp>’ </p></dd> </dl> <p>Bash also performs tilde expansion on words satisfying the conditions of variable assignments (see <a href="#Shell-Parameters">Shell Parameters</a>) when they appear as arguments to simple commands. Bash does not do this, except for the <var>declaration</var> commands listed above, when in <small>POSIX</small> mode. </p> <hr> <span id="Shell-Parameter-Expansion"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Command-Substitution" accesskey="n" rel="next">Command Substitution</a>, Previous: <a href="#Tilde-Expansion" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Tilde Expansion</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Expansions</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Parameter-Expansion-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.5.3 Shell Parameter Expansion</h4> <span id="index-parameter-expansion"></span> <span id="index-expansion_002c-parameter"></span> <p>The ‘<samp>$</samp>’ character introduces parameter expansion, command substitution, or arithmetic expansion. The parameter name or symbol to be expanded may be enclosed in braces, which are optional but serve to protect the variable to be expanded from characters immediately following it which could be interpreted as part of the name. </p> <p>When braces are used, the matching ending brace is the first ‘<samp>}</samp>’ not escaped by a backslash or within a quoted string, and not within an embedded arithmetic expansion, command substitution, or parameter expansion. </p> <p>The basic form of parameter expansion is ${<var>parameter</var>}. The value of <var>parameter</var> is substituted. The <var>parameter</var> is a shell parameter as described above (see <a href="#Shell-Parameters">Shell Parameters</a>) or an array reference (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>). The braces are required when <var>parameter</var> is a positional parameter with more than one digit, or when <var>parameter</var> is followed by a character that is not to be interpreted as part of its name. </p> <p>If the first character of <var>parameter</var> is an exclamation point (!), and <var>parameter</var> is not a <var>nameref</var>, it introduces a level of indirection. Bash uses the value formed by expanding the rest of <var>parameter</var> as the new <var>parameter</var>; this is then expanded and that value is used in the rest of the expansion, rather than the expansion of the original <var>parameter</var>. This is known as <code>indirect expansion</code>. The value is subject to tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. If <var>parameter</var> is a nameref, this expands to the name of the variable referenced by <var>parameter</var> instead of performing the complete indirect expansion. The exceptions to this are the expansions of ${!<var>prefix</var>*} and ${!<var>name</var>[@]} described below. The exclamation point must immediately follow the left brace in order to introduce indirection. </p> <p>In each of the cases below, <var>word</var> is subject to tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. </p> <p>When not performing substring expansion, using the form described below (e.g., ‘<samp>:-</samp>’), Bash tests for a parameter that is unset or null. Omitting the colon results in a test only for a parameter that is unset. Put another way, if the colon is included, the operator tests for both <var>parameter</var>’s existence and that its value is not null; if the colon is omitted, the operator tests only for existence. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>:-<var>word</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>If <var>parameter</var> is unset or null, the expansion of <var>word</var> is substituted. Otherwise, the value of <var>parameter</var> is substituted. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>:=<var>word</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>If <var>parameter</var> is unset or null, the expansion of <var>word</var> is assigned to <var>parameter</var>. The value of <var>parameter</var> is then substituted. Positional parameters and special parameters may not be assigned to in this way. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>:?<var>word</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>If <var>parameter</var> is null or unset, the expansion of <var>word</var> (or a message to that effect if <var>word</var> is not present) is written to the standard error and the shell, if it is not interactive, exits. Otherwise, the value of <var>parameter</var> is substituted. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>:+<var>word</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>If <var>parameter</var> is null or unset, nothing is substituted, otherwise the expansion of <var>word</var> is substituted. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>:<var>offset</var>}</code></dt> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>:<var>offset</var>:<var>length</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>This is referred to as Substring Expansion. It expands to up to <var>length</var> characters of the value of <var>parameter</var> starting at the character specified by <var>offset</var>. If <var>parameter</var> is ‘<samp>@</samp>’, an indexed array subscripted by ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, or an associative array name, the results differ as described below. If <var>length</var> is omitted, it expands to the substring of the value of <var>parameter</var> starting at the character specified by <var>offset</var> and extending to the end of the value. <var>length</var> and <var>offset</var> are arithmetic expressions (see <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a>). </p> <p>If <var>offset</var> evaluates to a number less than zero, the value is used as an offset in characters from the end of the value of <var>parameter</var>. If <var>length</var> evaluates to a number less than zero, it is interpreted as an offset in characters from the end of the value of <var>parameter</var> rather than a number of characters, and the expansion is the characters between <var>offset</var> and that result. Note that a negative offset must be separated from the colon by at least one space to avoid being confused with the ‘<samp>:-</samp>’ expansion. </p> <p>Here are some examples illustrating substring expansion on parameters and subscripted arrays: </p> <pre class="verbatim">$ string=01234567890abcdefgh $ echo ${string:7} 7890abcdefgh $ echo ${string:7:0} $ echo ${string:7:2} 78 $ echo ${string:7:-2} 7890abcdef $ echo ${string: -7} bcdefgh $ echo ${string: -7:0} $ echo ${string: -7:2} bc $ echo ${string: -7:-2} bcdef $ set -- 01234567890abcdefgh $ echo ${1:7} 7890abcdefgh $ echo ${1:7:0} $ echo ${1:7:2} 78 $ echo ${1:7:-2} 7890abcdef $ echo ${1: -7} bcdefgh $ echo ${1: -7:0} $ echo ${1: -7:2} bc $ echo ${1: -7:-2} bcdef $ array[0]=01234567890abcdefgh $ echo ${array[0]:7} 7890abcdefgh $ echo ${array[0]:7:0} $ echo ${array[0]:7:2} 78 $ echo ${array[0]:7:-2} 7890abcdef $ echo ${array[0]: -7} bcdefgh $ echo ${array[0]: -7:0} $ echo ${array[0]: -7:2} bc $ echo ${array[0]: -7:-2} bcdef </pre> <p>If <var>parameter</var> is ‘<samp>@</samp>’, the result is <var>length</var> positional parameters beginning at <var>offset</var>. A negative <var>offset</var> is taken relative to one greater than the greatest positional parameter, so an offset of -1 evaluates to the last positional parameter. It is an expansion error if <var>length</var> evaluates to a number less than zero. </p> <p>The following examples illustrate substring expansion using positional parameters: </p> <pre class="verbatim">$ set -- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h $ echo ${@:7} 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h $ echo ${@:7:0} $ echo ${@:7:2} 7 8 $ echo ${@:7:-2} bash: -2: substring expression < 0 $ echo ${@: -7:2} b c $ echo ${@:0} ./bash 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h $ echo ${@:0:2} ./bash 1 $ echo ${@: -7:0} </pre> <p>If <var>parameter</var> is an indexed array name subscripted by ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the result is the <var>length</var> members of the array beginning with <code>${<var>parameter</var>[<var>offset</var>]}</code>. A negative <var>offset</var> is taken relative to one greater than the maximum index of the specified array. It is an expansion error if <var>length</var> evaluates to a number less than zero. </p> <p>These examples show how you can use substring expansion with indexed arrays: </p> <pre class="verbatim">$ array=(0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h) $ echo ${array[@]:7} 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h $ echo ${array[@]:7:2} 7 8 $ echo ${array[@]: -7:2} b c $ echo ${array[@]: -7:-2} bash: -2: substring expression < 0 $ echo ${array[@]:0} 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h $ echo ${array[@]:0:2} 0 1 $ echo ${array[@]: -7:0} </pre> <p>Substring expansion applied to an associative array produces undefined results. </p> <p>Substring indexing is zero-based unless the positional parameters are used, in which case the indexing starts at 1 by default. If <var>offset</var> is 0, and the positional parameters are used, <code>$0</code> is prefixed to the list. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${!<var>prefix</var>*}</code></dt> <dt><code>${!<var>prefix</var>@}</code></dt> <dd><p>Expands to the names of variables whose names begin with <var>prefix</var>, separated by the first character of the <code>IFS</code> special variable. When ‘<samp>@</samp>’ is used and the expansion appears within double quotes, each variable name expands to a separate word. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${!<var>name</var>[@]}</code></dt> <dt><code>${!<var>name</var>[*]}</code></dt> <dd><p>If <var>name</var> is an array variable, expands to the list of array indices (keys) assigned in <var>name</var>. If <var>name</var> is not an array, expands to 0 if <var>name</var> is set and null otherwise. When ‘<samp>@</samp>’ is used and the expansion appears within double quotes, each key expands to a separate word. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${#<var>parameter</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>The length in characters of the expanded value of <var>parameter</var> is substituted. If <var>parameter</var> is ‘<samp>*</samp>’ or ‘<samp>@</samp>’, the value substituted is the number of positional parameters. If <var>parameter</var> is an array name subscripted by ‘<samp>*</samp>’ or ‘<samp>@</samp>’, the value substituted is the number of elements in the array. If <var>parameter</var> is an indexed array name subscripted by a negative number, that number is interpreted as relative to one greater than the maximum index of <var>parameter</var>, so negative indices count back from the end of the array, and an index of -1 references the last element. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>#<var>word</var>}</code></dt> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>##<var>word</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>word</var> is expanded to produce a pattern and matched according to the rules described below (see <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>). If the pattern matches the beginning of the expanded value of <var>parameter</var>, then the result of the expansion is the expanded value of <var>parameter</var> with the shortest matching pattern (the ‘<samp>#</samp>’ case) or the longest matching pattern (the ‘<samp>##</samp>’ case) deleted. If <var>parameter</var> is ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the pattern removal operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <var>parameter</var> is an array variable subscripted with ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the pattern removal operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>%<var>word</var>}</code></dt> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>%%<var>word</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>word</var> is expanded to produce a pattern and matched according to the rules described below (see <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>). If the pattern matches a trailing portion of the expanded value of <var>parameter</var>, then the result of the expansion is the value of <var>parameter</var> with the shortest matching pattern (the ‘<samp>%</samp>’ case) or the longest matching pattern (the ‘<samp>%%</samp>’ case) deleted. If <var>parameter</var> is ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the pattern removal operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <var>parameter</var> is an array variable subscripted with ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the pattern removal operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>/<var>pattern</var>/<var>string</var>}</code></dt> <dd> <p>The <var>pattern</var> is expanded to produce a pattern just as in filename expansion. <var>Parameter</var> is expanded and the longest match of <var>pattern</var> against its value is replaced with <var>string</var>. The match is performed according to the rules described below (see <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>). If <var>pattern</var> begins with ‘<samp>/</samp>’, all matches of <var>pattern</var> are replaced with <var>string</var>. Normally only the first match is replaced. If <var>pattern</var> begins with ‘<samp>#</samp>’, it must match at the beginning of the expanded value of <var>parameter</var>. If <var>pattern</var> begins with ‘<samp>%</samp>’, it must match at the end of the expanded value of <var>parameter</var>. If <var>string</var> is null, matches of <var>pattern</var> are deleted and the <code>/</code> following <var>pattern</var> may be omitted. If the <code>nocasematch</code> shell option (see the description of <code>shopt</code> in <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>) is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. If <var>parameter</var> is ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the substitution operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <var>parameter</var> is an array variable subscripted with ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the substitution operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>^<var>pattern</var>}</code></dt> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>^^<var>pattern</var>}</code></dt> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>,<var>pattern</var>}</code></dt> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>,,<var>pattern</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>This expansion modifies the case of alphabetic characters in <var>parameter</var>. The <var>pattern</var> is expanded to produce a pattern just as in filename expansion. Each character in the expanded value of <var>parameter</var> is tested against <var>pattern</var>, and, if it matches the pattern, its case is converted. The pattern should not attempt to match more than one character. The ‘<samp>^</samp>’ operator converts lowercase letters matching <var>pattern</var> to uppercase; the ‘<samp>,</samp>’ operator converts matching uppercase letters to lowercase. The ‘<samp>^^</samp>’ and ‘<samp>,,</samp>’ expansions convert each matched character in the expanded value; the ‘<samp>^</samp>’ and ‘<samp>,</samp>’ expansions match and convert only the first character in the expanded value. If <var>pattern</var> is omitted, it is treated like a ‘<samp>?</samp>’, which matches every character. If <var>parameter</var> is ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the case modification operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <var>parameter</var> is an array variable subscripted with ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the case modification operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. </p> </dd> <dt><code>${<var>parameter</var>@<var>operator</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>The expansion is either a transformation of the value of <var>parameter</var> or information about <var>parameter</var> itself, depending on the value of <var>operator</var>. Each <var>operator</var> is a single letter: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>U</code></dt> <dd><p>The expansion is a string that is the value of <var>parameter</var> with lowercase alphabetic characters converted to uppercase. </p></dd> <dt><code>u</code></dt> <dd><p>The expansion is a string that is the value of <var>parameter</var> with the first character converted to uppercase, if it is alphabetic. </p></dd> <dt><code>L</code></dt> <dd><p>The expansion is a string that is the value of <var>parameter</var> with uppercase alphabetic characters converted to lowercase. </p></dd> <dt><code>Q</code></dt> <dd><p>The expansion is a string that is the value of <var>parameter</var> quoted in a format that can be reused as input. </p></dd> <dt><code>E</code></dt> <dd><p>The expansion is a string that is the value of <var>parameter</var> with backslash escape sequences expanded as with the <code>$'…'</code> quoting mechanism. </p></dd> <dt><code>P</code></dt> <dd><p>The expansion is a string that is the result of expanding the value of <var>parameter</var> as if it were a prompt string (see <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt">Controlling the Prompt</a>). </p></dd> <dt><code>A</code></dt> <dd><p>The expansion is a string in the form of an assignment statement or <code>declare</code> command that, if evaluated, will recreate <var>parameter</var> with its attributes and value. </p></dd> <dt><code>K</code></dt> <dd><p>Produces a possibly-quoted version of the value of <var>parameter</var>, except that it prints the values of indexed and associative arrays as a sequence of quoted key-value pairs (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>). </p></dd> <dt><code>a</code></dt> <dd><p>The expansion is a string consisting of flag values representing <var>parameter</var>’s attributes. </p></dd> </dl> <p>If <var>parameter</var> is ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the operation is applied to each positional parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. If <var>parameter</var> is an array variable subscripted with ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the operation is applied to each member of the array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list. </p> <p>The result of the expansion is subject to word splitting and filename expansion as described below. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Command-Substitution"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Arithmetic-Expansion" accesskey="n" rel="next">Arithmetic Expansion</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Expansions</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Command-Substitution-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.5.4 Command Substitution</h4> <span id="index-command-substitution"></span> <p>Command substitution allows the output of a command to replace the command itself. Command substitution occurs when a command is enclosed as follows: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">$(<var>command</var>) </pre></div> <p>or </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">`<var>command</var>` </pre></div> <p>Bash performs the expansion by executing <var>command</var> in a subshell environment and replacing the command substitution with the standard output of the command, with any trailing newlines deleted. Embedded newlines are not deleted, but they may be removed during word splitting. The command substitution <code>$(cat <var>file</var>)</code> can be replaced by the equivalent but faster <code>$(< <var>file</var>)</code>. </p> <p>When the old-style backquote form of substitution is used, backslash retains its literal meaning except when followed by ‘<samp>$</samp>’, ‘<samp>`</samp>’, or ‘<samp>\</samp>’. The first backquote not preceded by a backslash terminates the command substitution. When using the <code>$(<var>command</var>)</code> form, all characters between the parentheses make up the command; none are treated specially. </p> <p>Command substitutions may be nested. To nest when using the backquoted form, escape the inner backquotes with backslashes. </p> <p>If the substitution appears within double quotes, word splitting and filename expansion are not performed on the results. </p> <hr> <span id="Arithmetic-Expansion"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Process-Substitution" accesskey="n" rel="next">Process Substitution</a>, Previous: <a href="#Command-Substitution" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Command Substitution</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Expansions</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Arithmetic-Expansion-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.5.5 Arithmetic Expansion</h4> <span id="index-expansion_002c-arithmetic"></span> <span id="index-arithmetic-expansion"></span> <p>Arithmetic expansion allows the evaluation of an arithmetic expression and the substitution of the result. The format for arithmetic expansion is: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">$(( <var>expression</var> )) </pre></div> <p>The expression is treated as if it were within double quotes, but a double quote inside the parentheses is not treated specially. All tokens in the expression undergo parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and quote removal. The result is treated as the arithmetic expression to be evaluated. Arithmetic expansions may be nested. </p> <p>The evaluation is performed according to the rules listed below (see <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a>). If the expression is invalid, Bash prints a message indicating failure to the standard error and no substitution occurs. </p> <hr> <span id="Process-Substitution"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Word-Splitting" accesskey="n" rel="next">Word Splitting</a>, Previous: <a href="#Arithmetic-Expansion" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Arithmetic Expansion</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Expansions</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Process-Substitution-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.5.6 Process Substitution</h4> <span id="index-process-substitution"></span> <p>Process substitution allows a process’s input or output to be referred to using a filename. It takes the form of </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><(<var>list</var>) </pre></div> <p>or </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">>(<var>list</var>) </pre></div> <p>The process <var>list</var> is run asynchronously, and its input or output appears as a filename. This filename is passed as an argument to the current command as the result of the expansion. If the <code>>(<var>list</var>)</code> form is used, writing to the file will provide input for <var>list</var>. If the <code><(<var>list</var>)</code> form is used, the file passed as an argument should be read to obtain the output of <var>list</var>. Note that no space may appear between the <code><</code> or <code>></code> and the left parenthesis, otherwise the construct would be interpreted as a redirection. Process substitution is supported on systems that support named pipes (<small>FIFO</small>s) or the <samp>/dev/fd</samp> method of naming open files. </p> <p>When available, process substitution is performed simultaneously with parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. </p> <hr> <span id="Word-Splitting"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Filename-Expansion" accesskey="n" rel="next">Filename Expansion</a>, Previous: <a href="#Process-Substitution" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Process Substitution</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Expansions</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Word-Splitting-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.5.7 Word Splitting</h4> <span id="index-word-splitting"></span> <p>The shell scans the results of parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion that did not occur within double quotes for word splitting. </p> <p>The shell treats each character of <code>$IFS</code> as a delimiter, and splits the results of the other expansions into words using these characters as field terminators. If <code>IFS</code> is unset, or its value is exactly <code><space><tab><newline></code>, the default, then sequences of <code> <space></code>, <code><tab></code>, and <code><newline></code> at the beginning and end of the results of the previous expansions are ignored, and any sequence of <code>IFS</code> characters not at the beginning or end serves to delimit words. If <code>IFS</code> has a value other than the default, then sequences of the whitespace characters <code>space</code>, <code>tab</code>, and <code>newline</code> are ignored at the beginning and end of the word, as long as the whitespace character is in the value of <code>IFS</code> (an <code>IFS</code> whitespace character). Any character in <code>IFS</code> that is not <code>IFS</code> whitespace, along with any adjacent <code>IFS</code> whitespace characters, delimits a field. A sequence of <code>IFS</code> whitespace characters is also treated as a delimiter. If the value of <code>IFS</code> is null, no word splitting occurs. </p> <p>Explicit null arguments (<code>""</code> or <code>''</code>) are retained and passed to commands as empty strings. Unquoted implicit null arguments, resulting from the expansion of parameters that have no values, are removed. If a parameter with no value is expanded within double quotes, a null argument results and is retained and passed to a command as an empty string. When a quoted null argument appears as part of a word whose expansion is non-null, the null argument is removed. That is, the word <code>-d''</code> becomes <code>-d</code> after word splitting and null argument removal. </p> <p>Note that if no expansion occurs, no splitting is performed. </p> <hr> <span id="Filename-Expansion"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Quote-Removal" accesskey="n" rel="next">Quote Removal</a>, Previous: <a href="#Word-Splitting" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Word Splitting</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Expansions</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Filename-Expansion-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.5.8 Filename Expansion</h4> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Pattern-Matching" accesskey="1">Pattern Matching</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How the shell matches patterns. </td></tr> </table> <span id="index-expansion_002c-filename"></span> <span id="index-expansion_002c-pathname"></span> <span id="index-filename-expansion"></span> <span id="index-pathname-expansion"></span> <p>After word splitting, unless the <samp>-f</samp> option has been set (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>), Bash scans each word for the characters ‘<samp>*</samp>’, ‘<samp>?</samp>’, and ‘<samp>[</samp>’. If one of these characters appears, and is not quoted, then the word is regarded as a <var>pattern</var>, and replaced with an alphabetically sorted list of filenames matching the pattern (see <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>). If no matching filenames are found, and the shell option <code>nullglob</code> is disabled, the word is left unchanged. If the <code>nullglob</code> option is set, and no matches are found, the word is removed. If the <code>failglob</code> shell option is set, and no matches are found, an error message is printed and the command is not executed. If the shell option <code>nocaseglob</code> is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. </p> <p>When a pattern is used for filename expansion, the character ‘<samp>.</samp>’ at the start of a filename or immediately following a slash must be matched explicitly, unless the shell option <code>dotglob</code> is set. The filenames ‘<samp>.</samp>’ and ‘<samp>..</samp>’ must always be matched explicitly, even if <code>dotglob</code> is set. In other cases, the ‘<samp>.</samp>’ character is not treated specially. </p> <p>When matching a filename, the slash character must always be matched explicitly by a slash in the pattern, but in other matching contexts it can be matched by a special pattern character as described below (see <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>). </p> <p>See the description of <code>shopt</code> in <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>, for a description of the <code>nocaseglob</code>, <code>nullglob</code>, <code>failglob</code>, and <code>dotglob</code> options. </p> <p>The <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> shell variable may be used to restrict the set of file names matching a pattern. If <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> is set, each matching file name that also matches one of the patterns in <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> is removed from the list of matches. If the <code>nocaseglob</code> option is set, the matching against the patterns in <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> is performed without regard to case. The filenames <samp>.</samp> and <samp>..</samp> are always ignored when <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> is set and not null. However, setting <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> to a non-null value has the effect of enabling the <code>dotglob</code> shell option, so all other filenames beginning with a ‘<samp>.</samp>’ will match. To get the old behavior of ignoring filenames beginning with a ‘<samp>.</samp>’, make ‘<samp>.*</samp>’ one of the patterns in <code>GLOBIGNORE</code>. The <code>dotglob</code> option is disabled when <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> is unset. </p> <hr> <span id="Pattern-Matching"></span><div class="header"> <p> Up: <a href="#Filename-Expansion" accesskey="u" rel="up">Filename Expansion</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Pattern-Matching-1"></span><h4 class="subsubsection">3.5.8.1 Pattern Matching</h4> <span id="index-pattern-matching"></span> <span id="index-matching_002c-pattern"></span> <p>Any character that appears in a pattern, other than the special pattern characters described below, matches itself. The <small>NUL</small> character may not occur in a pattern. A backslash escapes the following character; the escaping backslash is discarded when matching. The special pattern characters must be quoted if they are to be matched literally. </p> <p>The special pattern characters have the following meanings: </p><dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>*</code></dt> <dd><p>Matches any string, including the null string. When the <code>globstar</code> shell option is enabled, and ‘<samp>*</samp>’ is used in a filename expansion context, two adjacent ‘<samp>*</samp>’s used as a single pattern will match all files and zero or more directories and subdirectories. If followed by a ‘<samp>/</samp>’, two adjacent ‘<samp>*</samp>’s will match only directories and subdirectories. </p></dd> <dt><code>?</code></dt> <dd><p>Matches any single character. </p></dd> <dt><code>[…]</code></dt> <dd><p>Matches any one of the enclosed characters. A pair of characters separated by a hyphen denotes a <var>range expression</var>; any character that falls between those two characters, inclusive, using the current locale’s collating sequence and character set, is matched. If the first character following the ‘<samp>[</samp>’ is a ‘<samp>!</samp>’ or a ‘<samp>^</samp>’ then any character not enclosed is matched. A ‘<samp>-</samp>’ may be matched by including it as the first or last character in the set. A ‘<samp>]</samp>’ may be matched by including it as the first character in the set. The sorting order of characters in range expressions is determined by the current locale and the values of the <code>LC_COLLATE</code> and <code>LC_ALL</code> shell variables, if set. </p> <p>For example, in the default C locale, ‘<samp>[a-dx-z]</samp>’ is equivalent to ‘<samp>[abcdxyz]</samp>’. Many locales sort characters in dictionary order, and in these locales ‘<samp>[a-dx-z]</samp>’ is typically not equivalent to ‘<samp>[abcdxyz]</samp>’; it might be equivalent to ‘<samp>[aBbCcDdxXyYz]</samp>’, for example. To obtain the traditional interpretation of ranges in bracket expressions, you can force the use of the C locale by setting the <code>LC_COLLATE</code> or <code>LC_ALL</code> environment variable to the value ‘<samp>C</samp>’, or enable the <code>globasciiranges</code> shell option. </p> <p>Within ‘<samp>[</samp>’ and ‘<samp>]</samp>’, <var>character classes</var> can be specified using the syntax <code>[:</code><var>class</var><code>:]</code>, where <var>class</var> is one of the following classes defined in the <small>POSIX</small> standard: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">alnum alpha ascii blank cntrl digit graph lower print punct space upper word xdigit </pre></div> <p>A character class matches any character belonging to that class. The <code>word</code> character class matches letters, digits, and the character ‘<samp>_</samp>’. </p> <p>Within ‘<samp>[</samp>’ and ‘<samp>]</samp>’, an <var>equivalence class</var> can be specified using the syntax <code>[=</code><var>c</var><code>=]</code>, which matches all characters with the same collation weight (as defined by the current locale) as the character <var>c</var>. </p> <p>Within ‘<samp>[</samp>’ and ‘<samp>]</samp>’, the syntax <code>[.</code><var>symbol</var><code>.]</code> matches the collating symbol <var>symbol</var>. </p></dd> </dl> <p>If the <code>extglob</code> shell option is enabled using the <code>shopt</code> builtin, several extended pattern matching operators are recognized. In the following description, a <var>pattern-list</var> is a list of one or more patterns separated by a ‘<samp>|</samp>’. Composite patterns may be formed using one or more of the following sub-patterns: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>?(<var>pattern-list</var>)</code></dt> <dd><p>Matches zero or one occurrence of the given patterns. </p> </dd> <dt><code>*(<var>pattern-list</var>)</code></dt> <dd><p>Matches zero or more occurrences of the given patterns. </p> </dd> <dt><code>+(<var>pattern-list</var>)</code></dt> <dd><p>Matches one or more occurrences of the given patterns. </p> </dd> <dt><code>@(<var>pattern-list</var>)</code></dt> <dd><p>Matches one of the given patterns. </p> </dd> <dt><code>!(<var>pattern-list</var>)</code></dt> <dd><p>Matches anything except one of the given patterns. </p></dd> </dl> <p>Complicated extended pattern matching against long strings is slow, especially when the patterns contain alternations and the strings contain multiple matches. Using separate matches against shorter strings, or using arrays of strings instead of a single long string, may be faster. </p> <hr> <span id="Quote-Removal"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Filename-Expansion" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Filename Expansion</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Expansions</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Quote-Removal-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.5.9 Quote Removal</h4> <p>After the preceding expansions, all unquoted occurrences of the characters ‘<samp>\</samp>’, ‘<samp>'</samp>’, and ‘<samp>"</samp>’ that did not result from one of the above expansions are removed. </p> <hr> <span id="Redirections"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Executing-Commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Executing Commands</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Expansions" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Expansions</a>, Up: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Basic Shell Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Redirections-1"></span><h3 class="section">3.6 Redirections</h3> <span id="index-redirection"></span> <p>Before a command is executed, its input and output may be <var>redirected</var> using a special notation interpreted by the shell. Redirection allows commands’ file handles to be duplicated, opened, closed, made to refer to different files, and can change the files the command reads from and writes to. Redirection may also be used to modify file handles in the current shell execution environment. The following redirection operators may precede or appear anywhere within a simple command or may follow a command. Redirections are processed in the order they appear, from left to right. </p> <p>Each redirection that may be preceded by a file descriptor number may instead be preceded by a word of the form {<var>varname</var>}. In this case, for each redirection operator except >&- and <&-, the shell will allocate a file descriptor greater than 10 and assign it to {<var>varname</var>}. If >&- or <&- is preceded by {<var>varname</var>}, the value of <var>varname</var> defines the file descriptor to close. If {<var>varname</var>} is supplied, the redirection persists beyond the scope of the command, allowing the shell programmer to manage the file descriptor’s lifetime manually. </p> <p>In the following descriptions, if the file descriptor number is omitted, and the first character of the redirection operator is ‘<samp><</samp>’, the redirection refers to the standard input (file descriptor 0). If the first character of the redirection operator is ‘<samp>></samp>’, the redirection refers to the standard output (file descriptor 1). </p> <p>The word following the redirection operator in the following descriptions, unless otherwise noted, is subjected to brace expansion, tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, quote removal, filename expansion, and word splitting. If it expands to more than one word, Bash reports an error. </p> <p>Note that the order of redirections is significant. For example, the command </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">ls > <var>dirlist</var> 2>&1 </pre></div> <p>directs both standard output (file descriptor 1) and standard error (file descriptor 2) to the file <var>dirlist</var>, while the command </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">ls 2>&1 > <var>dirlist</var> </pre></div> <p>directs only the standard output to file <var>dirlist</var>, because the standard error was made a copy of the standard output before the standard output was redirected to <var>dirlist</var>. </p> <p>Bash handles several filenames specially when they are used in redirections, as described in the following table. If the operating system on which Bash is running provides these special files, bash will use them; otherwise it will emulate them internally with the behavior described below. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>/dev/fd/<var>fd</var></code></dt> <dd><p>If <var>fd</var> is a valid integer, file descriptor <var>fd</var> is duplicated. </p> </dd> <dt><code>/dev/stdin</code></dt> <dd><p>File descriptor 0 is duplicated. </p> </dd> <dt><code>/dev/stdout</code></dt> <dd><p>File descriptor 1 is duplicated. </p> </dd> <dt><code>/dev/stderr</code></dt> <dd><p>File descriptor 2 is duplicated. </p> </dd> <dt><code>/dev/tcp/<var>host</var>/<var>port</var></code></dt> <dd><p>If <var>host</var> is a valid hostname or Internet address, and <var>port</var> is an integer port number or service name, Bash attempts to open the corresponding TCP socket. </p> </dd> <dt><code>/dev/udp/<var>host</var>/<var>port</var></code></dt> <dd><p>If <var>host</var> is a valid hostname or Internet address, and <var>port</var> is an integer port number or service name, Bash attempts to open the corresponding UDP socket. </p></dd> </dl> <p>A failure to open or create a file causes the redirection to fail. </p> <p>Redirections using file descriptors greater than 9 should be used with care, as they may conflict with file descriptors the shell uses internally. </p> <span id="Redirecting-Input"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.1 Redirecting Input</h4> <p>Redirection of input causes the file whose name results from the expansion of <var>word</var> to be opened for reading on file descriptor <code>n</code>, or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if <code>n</code> is not specified. </p> <p>The general format for redirecting input is: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]<<var>word</var> </pre></div> <span id="Redirecting-Output"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.2 Redirecting Output</h4> <p>Redirection of output causes the file whose name results from the expansion of <var>word</var> to be opened for writing on file descriptor <var>n</var>, or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if <var>n</var> is not specified. If the file does not exist it is created; if it does exist it is truncated to zero size. </p> <p>The general format for redirecting output is: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]>[|]<var>word</var> </pre></div> <p>If the redirection operator is ‘<samp>></samp>’, and the <code>noclobber</code> option to the <code>set</code> builtin has been enabled, the redirection will fail if the file whose name results from the expansion of <var>word</var> exists and is a regular file. If the redirection operator is ‘<samp>>|</samp>’, or the redirection operator is ‘<samp>></samp>’ and the <code>noclobber</code> option is not enabled, the redirection is attempted even if the file named by <var>word</var> exists. </p> <span id="Appending-Redirected-Output"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.3 Appending Redirected Output</h4> <p>Redirection of output in this fashion causes the file whose name results from the expansion of <var>word</var> to be opened for appending on file descriptor <var>n</var>, or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if <var>n</var> is not specified. If the file does not exist it is created. </p> <p>The general format for appending output is: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]>><var>word</var> </pre></div> <span id="Redirecting-Standard-Output-and-Standard-Error"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.4 Redirecting Standard Output and Standard Error</h4> <p>This construct allows both the standard output (file descriptor 1) and the standard error output (file descriptor 2) to be redirected to the file whose name is the expansion of <var>word</var>. </p> <p>There are two formats for redirecting standard output and standard error: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">&><var>word</var> </pre></div> <p>and </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">>&<var>word</var> </pre></div> <p>Of the two forms, the first is preferred. This is semantically equivalent to </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">><var>word</var> 2>&1 </pre></div> <p>When using the second form, <var>word</var> may not expand to a number or ‘<samp>-</samp>’. If it does, other redirection operators apply (see Duplicating File Descriptors below) for compatibility reasons. </p> <span id="Appending-Standard-Output-and-Standard-Error"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.5 Appending Standard Output and Standard Error</h4> <p>This construct allows both the standard output (file descriptor 1) and the standard error output (file descriptor 2) to be appended to the file whose name is the expansion of <var>word</var>. </p> <p>The format for appending standard output and standard error is: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">&>><var>word</var> </pre></div> <p>This is semantically equivalent to </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">>><var>word</var> 2>&1 </pre></div> <p>(see Duplicating File Descriptors below). </p> <span id="Here-Documents"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.6 Here Documents</h4> <p>This type of redirection instructs the shell to read input from the current source until a line containing only <var>word</var> (with no trailing blanks) is seen. All of the lines read up to that point are then used as the standard input (or file descriptor <var>n</var> if <var>n</var> is specified) for a command. </p> <p>The format of here-documents is: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]<<[-]<var>word</var> <var>here-document</var> <var>delimiter</var> </pre></div> <p>No parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, or filename expansion is performed on <var>word</var>. If any part of <var>word</var> is quoted, the <var>delimiter</var> is the result of quote removal on <var>word</var>, and the lines in the here-document are not expanded. If <var>word</var> is unquoted, all lines of the here-document are subjected to parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion, the character sequence <code>\newline</code> is ignored, and ‘<samp>\</samp>’ must be used to quote the characters ‘<samp>\</samp>’, ‘<samp>$</samp>’, and ‘<samp>`</samp>’. </p> <p>If the redirection operator is ‘<samp><<-</samp>’, then all leading tab characters are stripped from input lines and the line containing <var>delimiter</var>. This allows here-documents within shell scripts to be indented in a natural fashion. </p> <span id="Here-Strings"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.7 Here Strings</h4> <p>A variant of here documents, the format is: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]<<< <var>word</var> </pre></div> <p>The <var>word</var> undergoes tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal. Filename expansion and word splitting are not performed. The result is supplied as a single string, with a newline appended, to the command on its standard input (or file descriptor <var>n</var> if <var>n</var> is specified). </p> <span id="Duplicating-File-Descriptors"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.8 Duplicating File Descriptors</h4> <p>The redirection operator </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]<&<var>word</var> </pre></div> <p>is used to duplicate input file descriptors. If <var>word</var> expands to one or more digits, the file descriptor denoted by <var>n</var> is made to be a copy of that file descriptor. If the digits in <var>word</var> do not specify a file descriptor open for input, a redirection error occurs. If <var>word</var> evaluates to ‘<samp>-</samp>’, file descriptor <var>n</var> is closed. If <var>n</var> is not specified, the standard input (file descriptor 0) is used. </p> <p>The operator </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]>&<var>word</var> </pre></div> <p>is used similarly to duplicate output file descriptors. If <var>n</var> is not specified, the standard output (file descriptor 1) is used. If the digits in <var>word</var> do not specify a file descriptor open for output, a redirection error occurs. If <var>word</var> evaluates to ‘<samp>-</samp>’, file descriptor <var>n</var> is closed. As a special case, if <var>n</var> is omitted, and <var>word</var> does not expand to one or more digits or ‘<samp>-</samp>’, the standard output and standard error are redirected as described previously. </p> <span id="Moving-File-Descriptors"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.9 Moving File Descriptors</h4> <p>The redirection operator </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]<&<var>digit</var>- </pre></div> <p>moves the file descriptor <var>digit</var> to file descriptor <var>n</var>, or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if <var>n</var> is not specified. <var>digit</var> is closed after being duplicated to <var>n</var>. </p> <p>Similarly, the redirection operator </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]>&<var>digit</var>- </pre></div> <p>moves the file descriptor <var>digit</var> to file descriptor <var>n</var>, or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if <var>n</var> is not specified. </p> <span id="Opening-File-Descriptors-for-Reading-and-Writing"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.6.10 Opening File Descriptors for Reading and Writing</h4> <p>The redirection operator </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[<var>n</var>]<><var>word</var> </pre></div> <p>causes the file whose name is the expansion of <var>word</var> to be opened for both reading and writing on file descriptor <var>n</var>, or on file descriptor 0 if <var>n</var> is not specified. If the file does not exist, it is created. </p> <hr> <span id="Executing-Commands"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Scripts" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Scripts</a>, Previous: <a href="#Redirections" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Redirections</a>, Up: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Basic Shell Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Executing-Commands-1"></span><h3 class="section">3.7 Executing Commands</h3> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Simple-Command-Expansion" accesskey="1">Simple Command Expansion</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How Bash expands simple commands before executing them. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Command-Search-and-Execution" accesskey="2">Command Search and Execution</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How Bash finds commands and runs them. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Command-Execution-Environment" accesskey="3">Command Execution Environment</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The environment in which Bash executes commands that are not shell builtins. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Environment" accesskey="4">Environment</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The environment given to a command. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Exit-Status" accesskey="5">Exit Status</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The status returned by commands and how Bash interprets it. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Signals" accesskey="6">Signals</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">What happens when Bash or a command it runs receives a signal. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Simple-Command-Expansion"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Command-Search-and-Execution" accesskey="n" rel="next">Command Search and Execution</a>, Up: <a href="#Executing-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Executing Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Simple-Command-Expansion-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.7.1 Simple Command Expansion</h4> <span id="index-command-expansion"></span> <p>When a simple command is executed, the shell performs the following expansions, assignments, and redirections, from left to right, in the following order. </p> <ol> <li> The words that the parser has marked as variable assignments (those preceding the command name) and redirections are saved for later processing. </li><li> The words that are not variable assignments or redirections are expanded (see <a href="#Shell-Expansions">Shell Expansions</a>). If any words remain after expansion, the first word is taken to be the name of the command and the remaining words are the arguments. </li><li> Redirections are performed as described above (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>). </li><li> The text after the ‘<samp>=</samp>’ in each variable assignment undergoes tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal before being assigned to the variable. </li></ol> <p>If no command name results, the variable assignments affect the current shell environment. Otherwise, the variables are added to the environment of the executed command and do not affect the current shell environment. If any of the assignments attempts to assign a value to a readonly variable, an error occurs, and the command exits with a non-zero status. </p> <p>If no command name results, redirections are performed, but do not affect the current shell environment. A redirection error causes the command to exit with a non-zero status. </p> <p>If there is a command name left after expansion, execution proceeds as described below. Otherwise, the command exits. If one of the expansions contained a command substitution, the exit status of the command is the exit status of the last command substitution performed. If there were no command substitutions, the command exits with a status of zero. </p> <hr> <span id="Command-Search-and-Execution"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Command-Execution-Environment" accesskey="n" rel="next">Command Execution Environment</a>, Previous: <a href="#Simple-Command-Expansion" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Simple Command Expansion</a>, Up: <a href="#Executing-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Executing Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Command-Search-and-Execution-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.7.2 Command Search and Execution</h4> <span id="index-command-execution"></span> <span id="index-command-search"></span> <p>After a command has been split into words, if it results in a simple command and an optional list of arguments, the following actions are taken. </p> <ol> <li> If the command name contains no slashes, the shell attempts to locate it. If there exists a shell function by that name, that function is invoked as described in <a href="#Shell-Functions">Shell Functions</a>. </li><li> If the name does not match a function, the shell searches for it in the list of shell builtins. If a match is found, that builtin is invoked. </li><li> If the name is neither a shell function nor a builtin, and contains no slashes, Bash searches each element of <code>$PATH</code> for a directory containing an executable file by that name. Bash uses a hash table to remember the full pathnames of executable files to avoid multiple <code>PATH</code> searches (see the description of <code>hash</code> in <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). A full search of the directories in <code>$PATH</code> is performed only if the command is not found in the hash table. If the search is unsuccessful, the shell searches for a defined shell function named <code>command_not_found_handle</code>. If that function exists, it is invoked in a separate execution environment with the original command and the original command’s arguments as its arguments, and the function’s exit status becomes the exit status of that subshell. If that function is not defined, the shell prints an error message and returns an exit status of 127. </li><li> If the search is successful, or if the command name contains one or more slashes, the shell executes the named program in a separate execution environment. Argument 0 is set to the name given, and the remaining arguments to the command are set to the arguments supplied, if any. </li><li> If this execution fails because the file is not in executable format, and the file is not a directory, it is assumed to be a <var>shell script</var> and the shell executes it as described in <a href="#Shell-Scripts">Shell Scripts</a>. </li><li> If the command was not begun asynchronously, the shell waits for the command to complete and collects its exit status. </li></ol> <hr> <span id="Command-Execution-Environment"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Environment" accesskey="n" rel="next">Environment</a>, Previous: <a href="#Command-Search-and-Execution" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Command Search and Execution</a>, Up: <a href="#Executing-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Executing Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Command-Execution-Environment-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.7.3 Command Execution Environment</h4> <span id="index-execution-environment"></span> <p>The shell has an <var>execution environment</var>, which consists of the following: </p> <ul> <li> open files inherited by the shell at invocation, as modified by redirections supplied to the <code>exec</code> builtin </li><li> the current working directory as set by <code>cd</code>, <code>pushd</code>, or <code>popd</code>, or inherited by the shell at invocation </li><li> the file creation mode mask as set by <code>umask</code> or inherited from the shell’s parent </li><li> current traps set by <code>trap</code> </li><li> shell parameters that are set by variable assignment or with <code>set</code> or inherited from the shell’s parent in the environment </li><li> shell functions defined during execution or inherited from the shell’s parent in the environment </li><li> options enabled at invocation (either by default or with command-line arguments) or by <code>set</code> </li><li> options enabled by <code>shopt</code> (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>) </li><li> shell aliases defined with <code>alias</code> (see <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>) </li><li> various process <small>ID</small>s, including those of background jobs (see <a href="#Lists">Lists</a>), the value of <code>$$</code>, and the value of <code>$PPID</code> </li></ul> <p>When a simple command other than a builtin or shell function is to be executed, it is invoked in a separate execution environment that consists of the following. Unless otherwise noted, the values are inherited from the shell. </p> <ul> <li> the shell’s open files, plus any modifications and additions specified by redirections to the command </li><li> the current working directory </li><li> the file creation mode mask </li><li> shell variables and functions marked for export, along with variables exported for the command, passed in the environment (see <a href="#Environment">Environment</a>) </li><li> traps caught by the shell are reset to the values inherited from the shell’s parent, and traps ignored by the shell are ignored </li></ul> <p>A command invoked in this separate environment cannot affect the shell’s execution environment. </p> <p>Command substitution, commands grouped with parentheses, and asynchronous commands are invoked in a subshell environment that is a duplicate of the shell environment, except that traps caught by the shell are reset to the values that the shell inherited from its parent at invocation. Builtin commands that are invoked as part of a pipeline are also executed in a subshell environment. Changes made to the subshell environment cannot affect the shell’s execution environment. </p> <p>Subshells spawned to execute command substitutions inherit the value of the <samp>-e</samp> option from the parent shell. When not in <small>POSIX</small> mode, Bash clears the <samp>-e</samp> option in such subshells. </p> <p>If a command is followed by a ‘<samp>&</samp>’ and job control is not active, the default standard input for the command is the empty file <samp>/dev/null</samp>. Otherwise, the invoked command inherits the file descriptors of the calling shell as modified by redirections. </p> <hr> <span id="Environment"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Exit-Status" accesskey="n" rel="next">Exit Status</a>, Previous: <a href="#Command-Execution-Environment" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Command Execution Environment</a>, Up: <a href="#Executing-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Executing Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Environment-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.7.4 Environment</h4> <span id="index-environment"></span> <p>When a program is invoked it is given an array of strings called the <var>environment</var>. This is a list of name-value pairs, of the form <code>name=value</code>. </p> <p>Bash provides several ways to manipulate the environment. On invocation, the shell scans its own environment and creates a parameter for each name found, automatically marking it for <var>export</var> to child processes. Executed commands inherit the environment. The <code>export</code> and ‘<samp>declare -x</samp>’ commands allow parameters and functions to be added to and deleted from the environment. If the value of a parameter in the environment is modified, the new value becomes part of the environment, replacing the old. The environment inherited by any executed command consists of the shell’s initial environment, whose values may be modified in the shell, less any pairs removed by the <code>unset</code> and ‘<samp>export -n</samp>’ commands, plus any additions via the <code>export</code> and ‘<samp>declare -x</samp>’ commands. </p> <p>The environment for any simple command or function may be augmented temporarily by prefixing it with parameter assignments, as described in <a href="#Shell-Parameters">Shell Parameters</a>. These assignment statements affect only the environment seen by that command. </p> <p>If the <samp>-k</samp> option is set (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>), then all parameter assignments are placed in the environment for a command, not just those that precede the command name. </p> <p>When Bash invokes an external command, the variable ‘<samp>$_</samp>’ is set to the full pathname of the command and passed to that command in its environment. </p> <hr> <span id="Exit-Status"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Signals" accesskey="n" rel="next">Signals</a>, Previous: <a href="#Environment" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Environment</a>, Up: <a href="#Executing-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Executing Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Exit-Status-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.7.5 Exit Status</h4> <span id="index-exit-status-1"></span> <p>The exit status of an executed command is the value returned by the <var>waitpid</var> system call or equivalent function. Exit statuses fall between 0 and 255, though, as explained below, the shell may use values above 125 specially. Exit statuses from shell builtins and compound commands are also limited to this range. Under certain circumstances, the shell will use special values to indicate specific failure modes. </p> <p>For the shell’s purposes, a command which exits with a zero exit status has succeeded. A non-zero exit status indicates failure. This seemingly counter-intuitive scheme is used so there is one well-defined way to indicate success and a variety of ways to indicate various failure modes. When a command terminates on a fatal signal whose number is <var>N</var>, Bash uses the value 128+<var>N</var> as the exit status. </p> <p>If a command is not found, the child process created to execute it returns a status of 127. If a command is found but is not executable, the return status is 126. </p> <p>If a command fails because of an error during expansion or redirection, the exit status is greater than zero. </p> <p>The exit status is used by the Bash conditional commands (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>) and some of the list constructs (see <a href="#Lists">Lists</a>). </p> <p>All of the Bash builtins return an exit status of zero if they succeed and a non-zero status on failure, so they may be used by the conditional and list constructs. All builtins return an exit status of 2 to indicate incorrect usage, generally invalid options or missing arguments. </p> <hr> <span id="Signals"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Exit-Status" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Exit Status</a>, Up: <a href="#Executing-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Executing Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Signals-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">3.7.6 Signals</h4> <span id="index-signal-handling"></span> <p>When Bash is interactive, in the absence of any traps, it ignores <code>SIGTERM</code> (so that ‘<samp>kill 0</samp>’ does not kill an interactive shell), and <code>SIGINT</code> is caught and handled (so that the <code>wait</code> builtin is interruptible). When Bash receives a <code>SIGINT</code>, it breaks out of any executing loops. In all cases, Bash ignores <code>SIGQUIT</code>. If job control is in effect (see <a href="#Job-Control">Job Control</a>), Bash ignores <code>SIGTTIN</code>, <code>SIGTTOU</code>, and <code>SIGTSTP</code>. </p> <p>Non-builtin commands started by Bash have signal handlers set to the values inherited by the shell from its parent. When job control is not in effect, asynchronous commands ignore <code>SIGINT</code> and <code>SIGQUIT</code> in addition to these inherited handlers. Commands run as a result of command substitution ignore the keyboard-generated job control signals <code>SIGTTIN</code>, <code>SIGTTOU</code>, and <code>SIGTSTP</code>. </p> <p>The shell exits by default upon receipt of a <code>SIGHUP</code>. Before exiting, an interactive shell resends the <code>SIGHUP</code> to all jobs, running or stopped. Stopped jobs are sent <code>SIGCONT</code> to ensure that they receive the <code>SIGHUP</code>. To prevent the shell from sending the <code>SIGHUP</code> signal to a particular job, it should be removed from the jobs table with the <code>disown</code> builtin (see <a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a>) or marked to not receive <code>SIGHUP</code> using <code>disown -h</code>. </p> <p>If the <code>huponexit</code> shell option has been set with <code>shopt</code> (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>), Bash sends a <code>SIGHUP</code> to all jobs when an interactive login shell exits. </p> <p>If Bash is waiting for a command to complete and receives a signal for which a trap has been set, the trap will not be executed until the command completes. When Bash is waiting for an asynchronous command via the <code>wait</code> builtin, the reception of a signal for which a trap has been set will cause the <code>wait</code> builtin to return immediately with an exit status greater than 128, immediately after which the trap is executed. </p> <hr> <span id="Shell-Scripts"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Executing-Commands" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Executing Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Basic Shell Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Scripts-1"></span><h3 class="section">3.8 Shell Scripts</h3> <span id="index-shell-script"></span> <p>A shell script is a text file containing shell commands. When such a file is used as the first non-option argument when invoking Bash, and neither the <samp>-c</samp> nor <samp>-s</samp> option is supplied (see <a href="#Invoking-Bash">Invoking Bash</a>), Bash reads and executes commands from the file, then exits. This mode of operation creates a non-interactive shell. The shell first searches for the file in the current directory, and looks in the directories in <code>$PATH</code> if not found there. </p> <p>When Bash runs a shell script, it sets the special parameter <code>0</code> to the name of the file, rather than the name of the shell, and the positional parameters are set to the remaining arguments, if any are given. If no additional arguments are supplied, the positional parameters are unset. </p> <p>A shell script may be made executable by using the <code>chmod</code> command to turn on the execute bit. When Bash finds such a file while searching the <code>$PATH</code> for a command, it spawns a subshell to execute it. In other words, executing </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">filename <var>arguments</var> </pre></div> <p>is equivalent to executing </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">bash filename <var>arguments</var> </pre></div> <p>if <code>filename</code> is an executable shell script. This subshell reinitializes itself, so that the effect is as if a new shell had been invoked to interpret the script, with the exception that the locations of commands remembered by the parent (see the description of <code>hash</code> in <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>) are retained by the child. </p> <p>Most versions of Unix make this a part of the operating system’s command execution mechanism. If the first line of a script begins with the two characters ‘<samp>#!</samp>’, the remainder of the line specifies an interpreter for the program and, depending on the operating system, one or more optional arguments for that interpreter. Thus, you can specify Bash, <code>awk</code>, Perl, or some other interpreter and write the rest of the script file in that language. </p> <p>The arguments to the interpreter consist of one or more optional arguments following the interpreter name on the first line of the script file, followed by the name of the script file, followed by the rest of the arguments supplied to the script. The details of how the interpreter line is split into an interpreter name and a set of arguments vary across systems. Bash will perform this action on operating systems that do not handle it themselves. Note that some older versions of Unix limit the interpreter name and a single argument to a maximum of 32 characters, so it’s not portable to assume that using more than one argument will work. </p> <p>Bash scripts often begin with <code>#! /bin/bash</code> (assuming that Bash has been installed in <samp>/bin</samp>), since this ensures that Bash will be used to interpret the script, even if it is executed under another shell. It’s a common idiom to use <code>env</code> to find <code>bash</code> even if it’s been installed in another directory: <code>#!/usr/bin/env bash</code> will find the first occurrence of <code>bash</code> in <code>$PATH</code>. </p> <hr> <span id="Shell-Builtin-Commands"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Variables" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Variables</a>, Previous: <a href="#Basic-Shell-Features" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Basic Shell Features</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Builtin-Commands-1"></span><h2 class="chapter">4 Shell Builtin Commands</h2> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins" accesskey="1">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Builtin commands inherited from the Bourne Shell. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bash-Builtins" accesskey="2">Bash Builtins</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Table of builtins specific to Bash. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Modifying-Shell-Behavior" accesskey="3">Modifying Shell Behavior</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Builtins to modify shell attributes and optional behavior. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Special-Builtins" accesskey="4">Special Builtins</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Builtin commands classified specially by POSIX. </td></tr> </table> <p>Builtin commands are contained within the shell itself. When the name of a builtin command is used as the first word of a simple command (see <a href="#Simple-Commands">Simple Commands</a>), the shell executes the command directly, without invoking another program. Builtin commands are necessary to implement functionality impossible or inconvenient to obtain with separate utilities. </p> <p>This section briefly describes the builtins which Bash inherits from the Bourne Shell, as well as the builtin commands which are unique to or have been extended in Bash. </p> <p>Several builtin commands are described in other chapters: builtin commands which provide the Bash interface to the job control facilities (see <a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a>), the directory stack (see <a href="#Directory-Stack-Builtins">Directory Stack Builtins</a>), the command history (see <a href="#Bash-History-Builtins">Bash History Builtins</a>), and the programmable completion facilities (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins">Programmable Completion Builtins</a>). </p> <p>Many of the builtins have been extended by <small>POSIX</small> or Bash. </p> <p>Unless otherwise noted, each builtin command documented as accepting options preceded by ‘<samp>-</samp>’ accepts ‘<samp>--</samp>’ to signify the end of the options. The <code>:</code>, <code>true</code>, <code>false</code>, and <code>test</code>/<code>[</code> builtins do not accept options and do not treat ‘<samp>--</samp>’ specially. The <code>exit</code>, <code>logout</code>, <code>return</code>, <code>break</code>, <code>continue</code>, <code>let</code>, and <code>shift</code> builtins accept and process arguments beginning with ‘<samp>-</samp>’ without requiring ‘<samp>--</samp>’. Other builtins that accept arguments but are not specified as accepting options interpret arguments beginning with ‘<samp>-</samp>’ as invalid options and require ‘<samp>--</samp>’ to prevent this interpretation. </p> <hr> <span id="Bourne-Shell-Builtins"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Bash-Builtins" accesskey="n" rel="next">Bash Builtins</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Builtin-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Builtin Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bourne-Shell-Builtins-1"></span><h3 class="section">4.1 Bourne Shell Builtins</h3> <p>The following shell builtin commands are inherited from the Bourne Shell. These commands are implemented as specified by the <small>POSIX</small> standard. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>: <span class="roman">(a colon)</span></code></dt> <dd><span id="index-_003a"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">: [<var>arguments</var>] </pre></div> <p>Do nothing beyond expanding <var>arguments</var> and performing redirections. The return status is zero. </p> </dd> <dt><code>. <span class="roman">(a period)</span></code></dt> <dd><span id="index-_002e"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">. <var>filename</var> [<var>arguments</var>] </pre></div> <p>Read and execute commands from the <var>filename</var> argument in the current shell context. If <var>filename</var> does not contain a slash, the <code>PATH</code> variable is used to find <var>filename</var>. When Bash is not in <small>POSIX</small> mode, the current directory is searched if <var>filename</var> is not found in <code>$PATH</code>. If any <var>arguments</var> are supplied, they become the positional parameters when <var>filename</var> is executed. Otherwise the positional parameters are unchanged. If the <samp>-T</samp> option is enabled, <code>source</code> inherits any trap on <code>DEBUG</code>; if it is not, any <code>DEBUG</code> trap string is saved and restored around the call to <code>source</code>, and <code>source</code> unsets the <code>DEBUG</code> trap while it executes. If <samp>-T</samp> is not set, and the sourced file changes the <code>DEBUG</code> trap, the new value is retained when <code>source</code> completes. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed, or zero if no commands are executed. If <var>filename</var> is not found, or cannot be read, the return status is non-zero. This builtin is equivalent to <code>source</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>break</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-break"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">break [<var>n</var>] </pre></div> <p>Exit from a <code>for</code>, <code>while</code>, <code>until</code>, or <code>select</code> loop. If <var>n</var> is supplied, the <var>n</var>th enclosing loop is exited. <var>n</var> must be greater than or equal to 1. The return status is zero unless <var>n</var> is not greater than or equal to 1. </p> </dd> <dt><code>cd</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-cd"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">cd [-L|[-P [-e]] [-@] [<var>directory</var>] </pre></div> <p>Change the current working directory to <var>directory</var>. If <var>directory</var> is not supplied, the value of the <code>HOME</code> shell variable is used. Any additional arguments following <var>directory</var> are ignored. If the shell variable <code>CDPATH</code> exists, it is used as a search path: each directory name in <code>CDPATH</code> is searched for <var>directory</var>, with alternative directory names in <code>CDPATH</code> separated by a colon (‘<samp>:</samp>’). If <var>directory</var> begins with a slash, <code>CDPATH</code> is not used. </p> <p>The <samp>-P</samp> option means to not follow symbolic links: symbolic links are resolved while <code>cd</code> is traversing <var>directory</var> and before processing an instance of ‘<samp>..</samp>’ in <var>directory</var>. </p> <p>By default, or when the <samp>-L</samp> option is supplied, symbolic links in <var>directory</var> are resolved after <code>cd</code> processes an instance of ‘<samp>..</samp>’ in <var>directory</var>. </p> <p>If ‘<samp>..</samp>’ appears in <var>directory</var>, it is processed by removing the immediately preceding pathname component, back to a slash or the beginning of <var>directory</var>. </p> <p>If the <samp>-e</samp> option is supplied with <samp>-P</samp> and the current working directory cannot be successfully determined after a successful directory change, <code>cd</code> will return an unsuccessful status. </p> <p>On systems that support it, the <samp>-@</samp> option presents the extended attributes associated with a file as a directory. </p> <p>If <var>directory</var> is ‘<samp>-</samp>’, it is converted to <code>$OLDPWD</code> before the directory change is attempted. </p> <p>If a non-empty directory name from <code>CDPATH</code> is used, or if ‘<samp>-</samp>’ is the first argument, and the directory change is successful, the absolute pathname of the new working directory is written to the standard output. </p> <p>The return status is zero if the directory is successfully changed, non-zero otherwise. </p> </dd> <dt><code>continue</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-continue"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">continue [<var>n</var>] </pre></div> <p>Resume the next iteration of an enclosing <code>for</code>, <code>while</code>, <code>until</code>, or <code>select</code> loop. If <var>n</var> is supplied, the execution of the <var>n</var>th enclosing loop is resumed. <var>n</var> must be greater than or equal to 1. The return status is zero unless <var>n</var> is not greater than or equal to 1. </p> </dd> <dt><code>eval</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-eval"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">eval [<var>arguments</var>] </pre></div> <p>The arguments are concatenated together into a single command, which is then read and executed, and its exit status returned as the exit status of <code>eval</code>. If there are no arguments or only empty arguments, the return status is zero. </p> </dd> <dt><code>exec</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-exec"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">exec [-cl] [-a <var>name</var>] [<var>command</var> [<var>arguments</var>]] </pre></div> <p>If <var>command</var> is supplied, it replaces the shell without creating a new process. If the <samp>-l</samp> option is supplied, the shell places a dash at the beginning of the zeroth argument passed to <var>command</var>. This is what the <code>login</code> program does. The <samp>-c</samp> option causes <var>command</var> to be executed with an empty environment. If <samp>-a</samp> is supplied, the shell passes <var>name</var> as the zeroth argument to <var>command</var>. If <var>command</var> cannot be executed for some reason, a non-interactive shell exits, unless the <code>execfail</code> shell option is enabled. In that case, it returns failure. An interactive shell returns failure if the file cannot be executed. A subshell exits unconditionally if <code>exec</code> fails. If no <var>command</var> is specified, redirections may be used to affect the current shell environment. If there are no redirection errors, the return status is zero; otherwise the return status is non-zero. </p> </dd> <dt><code>exit</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-exit"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">exit [<var>n</var>] </pre></div> <p>Exit the shell, returning a status of <var>n</var> to the shell’s parent. If <var>n</var> is omitted, the exit status is that of the last command executed. Any trap on <code>EXIT</code> is executed before the shell terminates. </p> </dd> <dt><code>export</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-export"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">export [-fn] [-p] [<var>name</var>[=<var>value</var>]] </pre></div> <p>Mark each <var>name</var> to be passed to child processes in the environment. If the <samp>-f</samp> option is supplied, the <var>name</var>s refer to shell functions; otherwise the names refer to shell variables. The <samp>-n</samp> option means to no longer mark each <var>name</var> for export. If no <var>names</var> are supplied, or if the <samp>-p</samp> option is given, a list of names of all exported variables is displayed. The <samp>-p</samp> option displays output in a form that may be reused as input. If a variable name is followed by =<var>value</var>, the value of the variable is set to <var>value</var>. </p> <p>The return status is zero unless an invalid option is supplied, one of the names is not a valid shell variable name, or <samp>-f</samp> is supplied with a name that is not a shell function. </p> </dd> <dt><code>getopts</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-getopts"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">getopts <var>optstring</var> <var>name</var> [<var>arg</var> …] </pre></div> <p><code>getopts</code> is used by shell scripts to parse positional parameters. <var>optstring</var> contains the option characters to be recognized; if a character is followed by a colon, the option is expected to have an argument, which should be separated from it by whitespace. The colon (‘<samp>:</samp>’) and question mark (‘<samp>?</samp>’) may not be used as option characters. Each time it is invoked, <code>getopts</code> places the next option in the shell variable <var>name</var>, initializing <var>name</var> if it does not exist, and the index of the next argument to be processed into the variable <code>OPTIND</code>. <code>OPTIND</code> is initialized to 1 each time the shell or a shell script is invoked. When an option requires an argument, <code>getopts</code> places that argument into the variable <code>OPTARG</code>. The shell does not reset <code>OPTIND</code> automatically; it must be manually reset between multiple calls to <code>getopts</code> within the same shell invocation if a new set of parameters is to be used. </p> <p>When the end of options is encountered, <code>getopts</code> exits with a return value greater than zero. <code>OPTIND</code> is set to the index of the first non-option argument, and <var>name</var> is set to ‘<samp>?</samp>’. </p> <p><code>getopts</code> normally parses the positional parameters, but if more arguments are supplied as <var>arg</var> values, <code>getopts</code> parses those instead. </p> <p><code>getopts</code> can report errors in two ways. If the first character of <var>optstring</var> is a colon, <var>silent</var> error reporting is used. In normal operation, diagnostic messages are printed when invalid options or missing option arguments are encountered. If the variable <code>OPTERR</code> is set to 0, no error messages will be displayed, even if the first character of <code>optstring</code> is not a colon. </p> <p>If an invalid option is seen, <code>getopts</code> places ‘<samp>?</samp>’ into <var>name</var> and, if not silent, prints an error message and unsets <code>OPTARG</code>. If <code>getopts</code> is silent, the option character found is placed in <code>OPTARG</code> and no diagnostic message is printed. </p> <p>If a required argument is not found, and <code>getopts</code> is not silent, a question mark (‘<samp>?</samp>’) is placed in <var>name</var>, <code>OPTARG</code> is unset, and a diagnostic message is printed. If <code>getopts</code> is silent, then a colon (‘<samp>:</samp>’) is placed in <var>name</var> and <code>OPTARG</code> is set to the option character found. </p> </dd> <dt><code>hash</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-hash"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">hash [-r] [-p <var>filename</var>] [-dt] [<var>name</var>] </pre></div> <p>Each time <code>hash</code> is invoked, it remembers the full pathnames of the commands specified as <var>name</var> arguments, so they need not be searched for on subsequent invocations. The commands are found by searching through the directories listed in <code>$PATH</code>. Any previously-remembered pathname is discarded. The <samp>-p</samp> option inhibits the path search, and <var>filename</var> is used as the location of <var>name</var>. The <samp>-r</samp> option causes the shell to forget all remembered locations. The <samp>-d</samp> option causes the shell to forget the remembered location of each <var>name</var>. If the <samp>-t</samp> option is supplied, the full pathname to which each <var>name</var> corresponds is printed. If multiple <var>name</var> arguments are supplied with <samp>-t</samp>, the <var>name</var> is printed before the hashed full pathname. The <samp>-l</samp> option causes output to be displayed in a format that may be reused as input. If no arguments are given, or if only <samp>-l</samp> is supplied, information about remembered commands is printed. The return status is zero unless a <var>name</var> is not found or an invalid option is supplied. </p> </dd> <dt><code>pwd</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-pwd"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">pwd [-LP] </pre></div> <p>Print the absolute pathname of the current working directory. If the <samp>-P</samp> option is supplied, the pathname printed will not contain symbolic links. If the <samp>-L</samp> option is supplied, the pathname printed may contain symbolic links. The return status is zero unless an error is encountered while determining the name of the current directory or an invalid option is supplied. </p> </dd> <dt><code>readonly</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-readonly"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">readonly [-aAf] [-p] [<var>name</var>[=<var>value</var>]] … </pre></div> <p>Mark each <var>name</var> as readonly. The values of these names may not be changed by subsequent assignment. If the <samp>-f</samp> option is supplied, each <var>name</var> refers to a shell function. The <samp>-a</samp> option means each <var>name</var> refers to an indexed array variable; the <samp>-A</samp> option means each <var>name</var> refers to an associative array variable. If both options are supplied, <samp>-A</samp> takes precedence. If no <var>name</var> arguments are given, or if the <samp>-p</samp> option is supplied, a list of all readonly names is printed. The other options may be used to restrict the output to a subset of the set of readonly names. The <samp>-p</samp> option causes output to be displayed in a format that may be reused as input. If a variable name is followed by =<var>value</var>, the value of the variable is set to <var>value</var>. The return status is zero unless an invalid option is supplied, one of the <var>name</var> arguments is not a valid shell variable or function name, or the <samp>-f</samp> option is supplied with a name that is not a shell function. </p> </dd> <dt><code>return</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-return"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">return [<var>n</var>] </pre></div> <p>Cause a shell function to stop executing and return the value <var>n</var> to its caller. If <var>n</var> is not supplied, the return value is the exit status of the last command executed in the function. If <code>return</code> is executed by a trap handler, the last command used to determine the status is the last command executed before the trap handler. If <code>return</code> is executed during a <code>DEBUG</code> trap, the last command used to determine the status is the last command executed by the trap handler before <code>return</code> was invoked. <code>return</code> may also be used to terminate execution of a script being executed with the <code>.</code> (<code>source</code>) builtin, returning either <var>n</var> or the exit status of the last command executed within the script as the exit status of the script. If <var>n</var> is supplied, the return value is its least significant 8 bits. Any command associated with the <code>RETURN</code> trap is executed before execution resumes after the function or script. The return status is non-zero if <code>return</code> is supplied a non-numeric argument or is used outside a function and not during the execution of a script by <code>.</code> or <code>source</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>shift</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-shift"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">shift [<var>n</var>] </pre></div> <p>Shift the positional parameters to the left by <var>n</var>. The positional parameters from <var>n</var>+1 … <code>$#</code> are renamed to <code>$1</code> … <code>$#</code>-<var>n</var>. Parameters represented by the numbers <code>$#</code> down to <code>$#</code>-<var>n</var>+1 are unset. <var>n</var> must be a non-negative number less than or equal to <code>$#</code>. If <var>n</var> is zero or greater than <code>$#</code>, the positional parameters are not changed. If <var>n</var> is not supplied, it is assumed to be 1. The return status is zero unless <var>n</var> is greater than <code>$#</code> or less than zero, non-zero otherwise. </p> </dd> <dt><code>test</code></dt> <dt><code>[</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-test"></span> <span id="index-_005b"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">test <var>expr</var> </pre></div> <p>Evaluate a conditional expression <var>expr</var> and return a status of 0 (true) or 1 (false). Each operator and operand must be a separate argument. Expressions are composed of the primaries described below in <a href="#Bash-Conditional-Expressions">Bash Conditional Expressions</a>. <code>test</code> does not accept any options, nor does it accept and ignore an argument of <samp>--</samp> as signifying the end of options. </p> <p>When the <code>[</code> form is used, the last argument to the command must be a <code>]</code>. </p> <p>Expressions may be combined using the following operators, listed in decreasing order of precedence. The evaluation depends on the number of arguments; see below. Operator precedence is used when there are five or more arguments. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>! <var>expr</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>expr</var> is false. </p> </dd> <dt><code>( <var>expr</var> )</code></dt> <dd><p>Returns the value of <var>expr</var>. This may be used to override the normal precedence of operators. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>expr1</var> -a <var>expr2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if both <var>expr1</var> and <var>expr2</var> are true. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>expr1</var> -o <var>expr2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if either <var>expr1</var> or <var>expr2</var> is true. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The <code>test</code> and <code>[</code> builtins evaluate conditional expressions using a set of rules based on the number of arguments. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt>0 arguments</dt> <dd><p>The expression is false. </p> </dd> <dt>1 argument</dt> <dd><p>The expression is true if, and only if, the argument is not null. </p> </dd> <dt>2 arguments</dt> <dd><p>If the first argument is ‘<samp>!</samp>’, the expression is true if and only if the second argument is null. If the first argument is one of the unary conditional operators (see <a href="#Bash-Conditional-Expressions">Bash Conditional Expressions</a>), the expression is true if the unary test is true. If the first argument is not a valid unary operator, the expression is false. </p> </dd> <dt>3 arguments</dt> <dd><p>The following conditions are applied in the order listed. </p> <ol> <li> If the second argument is one of the binary conditional operators (see <a href="#Bash-Conditional-Expressions">Bash Conditional Expressions</a>), the result of the expression is the result of the binary test using the first and third arguments as operands. The ‘<samp>-a</samp>’ and ‘<samp>-o</samp>’ operators are considered binary operators when there are three arguments. </li><li> If the first argument is ‘<samp>!</samp>’, the value is the negation of the two-argument test using the second and third arguments. </li><li> If the first argument is exactly ‘<samp>(</samp>’ and the third argument is exactly ‘<samp>)</samp>’, the result is the one-argument test of the second argument. </li><li> Otherwise, the expression is false. </li></ol> </dd> <dt>4 arguments</dt> <dd><p>If the first argument is ‘<samp>!</samp>’, the result is the negation of the three-argument expression composed of the remaining arguments. Otherwise, the expression is parsed and evaluated according to precedence using the rules listed above. </p> </dd> <dt>5 or more arguments</dt> <dd><p>The expression is parsed and evaluated according to precedence using the rules listed above. </p></dd> </dl> <p>When used with <code>test</code> or ‘<samp>[</samp>’, the ‘<samp><</samp>’ and ‘<samp>></samp>’ operators sort lexicographically using ASCII ordering. </p> </dd> <dt><code>times</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-times"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">times </pre></div> <p>Print out the user and system times used by the shell and its children. The return status is zero. </p> </dd> <dt><code>trap</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-trap"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">trap [-lp] [<var>arg</var>] [<var>sigspec</var> …] </pre></div> <p>The commands in <var>arg</var> are to be read and executed when the shell receives signal <var>sigspec</var>. If <var>arg</var> is absent (and there is a single <var>sigspec</var>) or equal to ‘<samp>-</samp>’, each specified signal’s disposition is reset to the value it had when the shell was started. If <var>arg</var> is the null string, then the signal specified by each <var>sigspec</var> is ignored by the shell and commands it invokes. If <var>arg</var> is not present and <samp>-p</samp> has been supplied, the shell displays the trap commands associated with each <var>sigspec</var>. If no arguments are supplied, or only <samp>-p</samp> is given, <code>trap</code> prints the list of commands associated with each signal number in a form that may be reused as shell input. The <samp>-l</samp> option causes the shell to print a list of signal names and their corresponding numbers. Each <var>sigspec</var> is either a signal name or a signal number. Signal names are case insensitive and the <code>SIG</code> prefix is optional. </p> <p>If a <var>sigspec</var> is <code>0</code> or <code>EXIT</code>, <var>arg</var> is executed when the shell exits. If a <var>sigspec</var> is <code>DEBUG</code>, the command <var>arg</var> is executed before every simple command, <code>for</code> command, <code>case</code> command, <code>select</code> command, every arithmetic <code>for</code> command, and before the first command executes in a shell function. Refer to the description of the <code>extdebug</code> option to the <code>shopt</code> builtin (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>) for details of its effect on the <code>DEBUG</code> trap. If a <var>sigspec</var> is <code>RETURN</code>, the command <var>arg</var> is executed each time a shell function or a script executed with the <code>.</code> or <code>source</code> builtins finishes executing. </p> <p>If a <var>sigspec</var> is <code>ERR</code>, the command <var>arg</var> is executed whenever a pipeline (which may consist of a single simple command), a list, or a compound command returns a non-zero exit status, subject to the following conditions. The <code>ERR</code> trap is not executed if the failed command is part of the command list immediately following an <code>until</code> or <code>while</code> keyword, part of the test following the <code>if</code> or <code>elif</code> reserved words, part of a command executed in a <code>&&</code> or <code>||</code> list except the command following the final <code>&&</code> or <code>||</code>, any command in a pipeline but the last, or if the command’s return status is being inverted using <code>!</code>. These are the same conditions obeyed by the <code>errexit</code> (<samp>-e</samp>) option. </p> <p>Signals ignored upon entry to the shell cannot be trapped or reset. Trapped signals that are not being ignored are reset to their original values in a subshell or subshell environment when one is created. </p> <p>The return status is zero unless a <var>sigspec</var> does not specify a valid signal. </p> </dd> <dt><code>umask</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-umask"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">umask [-p] [-S] [<var>mode</var>] </pre></div> <p>Set the shell process’s file creation mask to <var>mode</var>. If <var>mode</var> begins with a digit, it is interpreted as an octal number; if not, it is interpreted as a symbolic mode mask similar to that accepted by the <code>chmod</code> command. If <var>mode</var> is omitted, the current value of the mask is printed. If the <samp>-S</samp> option is supplied without a <var>mode</var> argument, the mask is printed in a symbolic format. If the <samp>-p</samp> option is supplied, and <var>mode</var> is omitted, the output is in a form that may be reused as input. The return status is zero if the mode is successfully changed or if no <var>mode</var> argument is supplied, and non-zero otherwise. </p> <p>Note that when the mode is interpreted as an octal number, each number of the umask is subtracted from <code>7</code>. Thus, a umask of <code>022</code> results in permissions of <code>755</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>unset</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-unset"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">unset [-fnv] [<var>name</var>] </pre></div> <p>Remove each variable or function <var>name</var>. If the <samp>-v</samp> option is given, each <var>name</var> refers to a shell variable and that variable is removed. If the <samp>-f</samp> option is given, the <var>name</var>s refer to shell functions, and the function definition is removed. If the <samp>-n</samp> option is supplied, and <var>name</var> is a variable with the <var>nameref</var> attribute, <var>name</var> will be unset rather than the variable it references. <samp>-n</samp> has no effect if the <samp>-f</samp> option is supplied. If no options are supplied, each <var>name</var> refers to a variable; if there is no variable by that name, a function with that name, if any, is unset. Readonly variables and functions may not be unset. Some shell variables lose their special behavior if they are unset; such behavior is noted in the description of the individual variables. The return status is zero unless a <var>name</var> is readonly. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Bash-Builtins"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Modifying-Shell-Behavior" accesskey="n" rel="next">Modifying Shell Behavior</a>, Previous: <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Builtin-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Builtin Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bash-Builtin-Commands"></span><h3 class="section">4.2 Bash Builtin Commands</h3> <p>This section describes builtin commands which are unique to or have been extended in Bash. Some of these commands are specified in the <small>POSIX</small> standard. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>alias</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-alias"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">alias [-p] [<var>name</var>[=<var>value</var>] …] </pre></div> <p>Without arguments or with the <samp>-p</samp> option, <code>alias</code> prints the list of aliases on the standard output in a form that allows them to be reused as input. If arguments are supplied, an alias is defined for each <var>name</var> whose <var>value</var> is given. If no <var>value</var> is given, the name and value of the alias is printed. Aliases are described in <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>bind</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-bind"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">bind [-m <var>keymap</var>] [-lpsvPSVX] bind [-m <var>keymap</var>] [-q <var>function</var>] [-u <var>function</var>] [-r <var>keyseq</var>] bind [-m <var>keymap</var>] -f <var>filename</var> bind [-m <var>keymap</var>] -x <var>keyseq:shell-command</var> bind [-m <var>keymap</var>] <var>keyseq:function-name</var> bind [-m <var>keymap</var>] <var>keyseq:readline-command</var> </pre></div> <p>Display current Readline (see <a href="#Command-Line-Editing">Command Line Editing</a>) key and function bindings, bind a key sequence to a Readline function or macro, or set a Readline variable. Each non-option argument is a command as it would appear in a Readline initialization file (see <a href="#Readline-Init-File">Readline Init File</a>), but each binding or command must be passed as a separate argument; e.g., ‘<samp>"\C-x\C-r":re-read-init-file</samp>’. </p> <p>Options, if supplied, have the following meanings: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-m <var>keymap</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Use <var>keymap</var> as the keymap to be affected by the subsequent bindings. Acceptable <var>keymap</var> names are <code>emacs</code>, <code>emacs-standard</code>, <code>emacs-meta</code>, <code>emacs-ctlx</code>, <code>vi</code>, <code>vi-move</code>, <code>vi-command</code>, and <code>vi-insert</code>. <code>vi</code> is equivalent to <code>vi-command</code> (<code>vi-move</code> is also a synonym); <code>emacs</code> is equivalent to <code>emacs-standard</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-l</code></dt> <dd><p>List the names of all Readline functions. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-p</code></dt> <dd><p>Display Readline function names and bindings in such a way that they can be used as input or in a Readline initialization file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-P</code></dt> <dd><p>List current Readline function names and bindings. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-v</code></dt> <dd><p>Display Readline variable names and values in such a way that they can be used as input or in a Readline initialization file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-V</code></dt> <dd><p>List current Readline variable names and values. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-s</code></dt> <dd><p>Display Readline key sequences bound to macros and the strings they output in such a way that they can be used as input or in a Readline initialization file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-S</code></dt> <dd><p>Display Readline key sequences bound to macros and the strings they output. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-f <var>filename</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Read key bindings from <var>filename</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-q <var>function</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Query about which keys invoke the named <var>function</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-u <var>function</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Unbind all keys bound to the named <var>function</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-r <var>keyseq</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Remove any current binding for <var>keyseq</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-x <var>keyseq:shell-command</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Cause <var>shell-command</var> to be executed whenever <var>keyseq</var> is entered. When <var>shell-command</var> is executed, the shell sets the <code>READLINE_LINE</code> variable to the contents of the Readline line buffer and the <code>READLINE_POINT</code> and <code>READLINE_MARK</code> variables to the current location of the insertion point and the saved insertion point (the <var>mark</var>), respectively. If the executed command changes the value of any of <code>READLINE_LINE</code>, <code>READLINE_POINT</code>, or <code>READLINE_MARK</code>, those new values will be reflected in the editing state. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-X</code></dt> <dd><p>List all key sequences bound to shell commands and the associated commands in a format that can be reused as input. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The return status is zero unless an invalid option is supplied or an error occurs. </p> </dd> <dt><code>builtin</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-builtin"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">builtin [<var>shell-builtin</var> [<var>args</var>]] </pre></div> <p>Run a shell builtin, passing it <var>args</var>, and return its exit status. This is useful when defining a shell function with the same name as a shell builtin, retaining the functionality of the builtin within the function. The return status is non-zero if <var>shell-builtin</var> is not a shell builtin command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>caller</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-caller"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">caller [<var>expr</var>] </pre></div> <p>Returns the context of any active subroutine call (a shell function or a script executed with the <code>.</code> or <code>source</code> builtins). </p> <p>Without <var>expr</var>, <code>caller</code> displays the line number and source filename of the current subroutine call. If a non-negative integer is supplied as <var>expr</var>, <code>caller</code> displays the line number, subroutine name, and source file corresponding to that position in the current execution call stack. This extra information may be used, for example, to print a stack trace. The current frame is frame 0. </p> <p>The return value is 0 unless the shell is not executing a subroutine call or <var>expr</var> does not correspond to a valid position in the call stack. </p> </dd> <dt><code>command</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-command"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">command [-pVv] <var>command</var> [<var>arguments</var> …] </pre></div> <p>Runs <var>command</var> with <var>arguments</var> ignoring any shell function named <var>command</var>. Only shell builtin commands or commands found by searching the <code>PATH</code> are executed. If there is a shell function named <code>ls</code>, running ‘<samp>command ls</samp>’ within the function will execute the external command <code>ls</code> instead of calling the function recursively. The <samp>-p</samp> option means to use a default value for <code>PATH</code> that is guaranteed to find all of the standard utilities. The return status in this case is 127 if <var>command</var> cannot be found or an error occurred, and the exit status of <var>command</var> otherwise. </p> <p>If either the <samp>-V</samp> or <samp>-v</samp> option is supplied, a description of <var>command</var> is printed. The <samp>-v</samp> option causes a single word indicating the command or file name used to invoke <var>command</var> to be displayed; the <samp>-V</samp> option produces a more verbose description. In this case, the return status is zero if <var>command</var> is found, and non-zero if not. </p> </dd> <dt><code>declare</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-declare"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">declare [-aAfFgiIlnrtux] [-p] [<var>name</var>[=<var>value</var>] …] </pre></div> <p>Declare variables and give them attributes. If no <var>name</var>s are given, then display the values of variables instead. </p> <p>The <samp>-p</samp> option will display the attributes and values of each <var>name</var>. When <samp>-p</samp> is used with <var>name</var> arguments, additional options, other than <samp>-f</samp> and <samp>-F</samp>, are ignored. </p> <p>When <samp>-p</samp> is supplied without <var>name</var> arguments, <code>declare</code> will display the attributes and values of all variables having the attributes specified by the additional options. If no other options are supplied with <samp>-p</samp>, <code>declare</code> will display the attributes and values of all shell variables. The <samp>-f</samp> option will restrict the display to shell functions. </p> <p>The <samp>-F</samp> option inhibits the display of function definitions; only the function name and attributes are printed. If the <code>extdebug</code> shell option is enabled using <code>shopt</code> (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>), the source file name and line number where each <var>name</var> is defined are displayed as well. <samp>-F</samp> implies <samp>-f</samp>. </p> <p>The <samp>-g</samp> option forces variables to be created or modified at the global scope, even when <code>declare</code> is executed in a shell function. It is ignored in all other cases. </p> <p>The <samp>-I</samp> option causes local variables to inherit the attributes (except the <var>nameref</var> attribute) and value of any existing variable with the same <var>name</var> at a surrounding scope. If there is no existing variable, the local variable is initially unset. </p> <p>The following options can be used to restrict output to variables with the specified attributes or to give variables attributes: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-a</code></dt> <dd><p>Each <var>name</var> is an indexed array variable (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-A</code></dt> <dd><p>Each <var>name</var> is an associative array variable (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-f</code></dt> <dd><p>Use function names only. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-i</code></dt> <dd><p>The variable is to be treated as an integer; arithmetic evaluation (see <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a>) is performed when the variable is assigned a value. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-l</code></dt> <dd><p>When the variable is assigned a value, all upper-case characters are converted to lower-case. The upper-case attribute is disabled. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-n</code></dt> <dd><p>Give each <var>name</var> the <var>nameref</var> attribute, making it a name reference to another variable. That other variable is defined by the value of <var>name</var>. All references, assignments, and attribute modifications to <var>name</var>, except for those using or changing the <samp>-n</samp> attribute itself, are performed on the variable referenced by <var>name</var>’s value. The nameref attribute cannot be applied to array variables. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-r</code></dt> <dd><p>Make <var>name</var>s readonly. These names cannot then be assigned values by subsequent assignment statements or unset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-t</code></dt> <dd><p>Give each <var>name</var> the <code>trace</code> attribute. Traced functions inherit the <code>DEBUG</code> and <code>RETURN</code> traps from the calling shell. The trace attribute has no special meaning for variables. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-u</code></dt> <dd><p>When the variable is assigned a value, all lower-case characters are converted to upper-case. The lower-case attribute is disabled. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-x</code></dt> <dd><p>Mark each <var>name</var> for export to subsequent commands via the environment. </p></dd> </dl> <p>Using ‘<samp>+</samp>’ instead of ‘<samp>-</samp>’ turns off the attribute instead, with the exceptions that ‘<samp>+a</samp>’ and ‘<samp>+A</samp>’ may not be used to destroy array variables and ‘<samp>+r</samp>’ will not remove the readonly attribute. When used in a function, <code>declare</code> makes each <var>name</var> local, as with the <code>local</code> command, unless the <samp>-g</samp> option is used. If a variable name is followed by =<var>value</var>, the value of the variable is set to <var>value</var>. </p> <p>When using <samp>-a</samp> or <samp>-A</samp> and the compound assignment syntax to create array variables, additional attributes do not take effect until subsequent assignments. </p> <p>The return status is zero unless an invalid option is encountered, an attempt is made to define a function using ‘<samp>-f foo=bar</samp>’, an attempt is made to assign a value to a readonly variable, an attempt is made to assign a value to an array variable without using the compound assignment syntax (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>), one of the <var>names</var> is not a valid shell variable name, an attempt is made to turn off readonly status for a readonly variable, an attempt is made to turn off array status for an array variable, or an attempt is made to display a non-existent function with <samp>-f</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>echo</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-echo"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">echo [-neE] [<var>arg</var> …] </pre></div> <p>Output the <var>arg</var>s, separated by spaces, terminated with a newline. The return status is 0 unless a write error occurs. If <samp>-n</samp> is specified, the trailing newline is suppressed. If the <samp>-e</samp> option is given, interpretation of the following backslash-escaped characters is enabled. The <samp>-E</samp> option disables the interpretation of these escape characters, even on systems where they are interpreted by default. The <code>xpg_echo</code> shell option may be used to dynamically determine whether or not <code>echo</code> expands these escape characters by default. <code>echo</code> does not interpret <samp>--</samp> to mean the end of options. </p> <p><code>echo</code> interprets the following escape sequences: </p><dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>\a</code></dt> <dd><p>alert (bell) </p></dd> <dt><code>\b</code></dt> <dd><p>backspace </p></dd> <dt><code>\c</code></dt> <dd><p>suppress further output </p></dd> <dt><code>\e</code></dt> <dt><code>\E</code></dt> <dd><p>escape </p></dd> <dt><code>\f</code></dt> <dd><p>form feed </p></dd> <dt><code>\n</code></dt> <dd><p>new line </p></dd> <dt><code>\r</code></dt> <dd><p>carriage return </p></dd> <dt><code>\t</code></dt> <dd><p>horizontal tab </p></dd> <dt><code>\v</code></dt> <dd><p>vertical tab </p></dd> <dt><code>\\</code></dt> <dd><p>backslash </p></dd> <dt><code>\0<var>nnn</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value <var>nnn</var> (zero to three octal digits) </p></dd> <dt><code>\x<var>HH</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value <var>HH</var> (one or two hex digits) </p></dd> <dt><code>\u<var>HHHH</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value <var>HHHH</var> (one to four hex digits) </p></dd> <dt><code>\U<var>HHHHHHHH</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value <var>HHHHHHHH</var> (one to eight hex digits) </p></dd> </dl> </dd> <dt><code>enable</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-enable"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">enable [-a] [-dnps] [-f <var>filename</var>] [<var>name</var> …] </pre></div> <p>Enable and disable builtin shell commands. Disabling a builtin allows a disk command which has the same name as a shell builtin to be executed without specifying a full pathname, even though the shell normally searches for builtins before disk commands. If <samp>-n</samp> is used, the <var>name</var>s become disabled. Otherwise <var>name</var>s are enabled. For example, to use the <code>test</code> binary found via <code>$PATH</code> instead of the shell builtin version, type ‘<samp>enable -n test</samp>’. </p> <p>If the <samp>-p</samp> option is supplied, or no <var>name</var> arguments appear, a list of shell builtins is printed. With no other arguments, the list consists of all enabled shell builtins. The <samp>-a</samp> option means to list each builtin with an indication of whether or not it is enabled. </p> <p>The <samp>-f</samp> option means to load the new builtin command <var>name</var> from shared object <var>filename</var>, on systems that support dynamic loading. The <samp>-d</samp> option will delete a builtin loaded with <samp>-f</samp>. </p> <p>If there are no options, a list of the shell builtins is displayed. The <samp>-s</samp> option restricts <code>enable</code> to the <small>POSIX</small> special builtins. If <samp>-s</samp> is used with <samp>-f</samp>, the new builtin becomes a special builtin (see <a href="#Special-Builtins">Special Builtins</a>). </p> <p>The return status is zero unless a <var>name</var> is not a shell builtin or there is an error loading a new builtin from a shared object. </p> </dd> <dt><code>help</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-help"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">help [-dms] [<var>pattern</var>] </pre></div> <p>Display helpful information about builtin commands. If <var>pattern</var> is specified, <code>help</code> gives detailed help on all commands matching <var>pattern</var>, otherwise a list of the builtins is printed. </p> <p>Options, if supplied, have the following meanings: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-d</code></dt> <dd><p>Display a short description of each <var>pattern</var> </p></dd> <dt><code>-m</code></dt> <dd><p>Display the description of each <var>pattern</var> in a manpage-like format </p></dd> <dt><code>-s</code></dt> <dd><p>Display only a short usage synopsis for each <var>pattern</var> </p></dd> </dl> <p>The return status is zero unless no command matches <var>pattern</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>let</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-let"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">let <var>expression</var> [<var>expression</var> …] </pre></div> <p>The <code>let</code> builtin allows arithmetic to be performed on shell variables. Each <var>expression</var> is evaluated according to the rules given below in <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a>. If the last <var>expression</var> evaluates to 0, <code>let</code> returns 1; otherwise 0 is returned. </p> </dd> <dt><code>local</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-local"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">local [<var>option</var>] <var>name</var>[=<var>value</var>] … </pre></div> <p>For each argument, a local variable named <var>name</var> is created, and assigned <var>value</var>. The <var>option</var> can be any of the options accepted by <code>declare</code>. <code>local</code> can only be used within a function; it makes the variable <var>name</var> have a visible scope restricted to that function and its children. If <var>name</var> is ‘<samp>-</samp>’, the set of shell options is made local to the function in which <code>local</code> is invoked: shell options changed using the <code>set</code> builtin inside the function are restored to their original values when the function returns. The restore is effected as if a series of <code>set</code> commands were executed to restore the values that were in place before the function. The return status is zero unless <code>local</code> is used outside a function, an invalid <var>name</var> is supplied, or <var>name</var> is a readonly variable. </p> </dd> <dt><code>logout</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-logout"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">logout [<var>n</var>] </pre></div> <p>Exit a login shell, returning a status of <var>n</var> to the shell’s parent. </p> </dd> <dt><code>mapfile</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-mapfile"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">mapfile [-d <var>delim</var>] [-n <var>count</var>] [-O <var>origin</var>] [-s <var>count</var>] [-t] [-u <var>fd</var>] [-C <var>callback</var>] [-c <var>quantum</var>] [<var>array</var>] </pre></div> <p>Read lines from the standard input into the indexed array variable <var>array</var>, or from file descriptor <var>fd</var> if the <samp>-u</samp> option is supplied. The variable <code>MAPFILE</code> is the default <var>array</var>. Options, if supplied, have the following meanings: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-d</code></dt> <dd><p>The first character of <var>delim</var> is used to terminate each input line, rather than newline. If <var>delim</var> is the empty string, <code>mapfile</code> will terminate a line when it reads a NUL character. </p></dd> <dt><code>-n</code></dt> <dd><p>Copy at most <var>count</var> lines. If <var>count</var> is 0, all lines are copied. </p></dd> <dt><code>-O</code></dt> <dd><p>Begin assigning to <var>array</var> at index <var>origin</var>. The default index is 0. </p></dd> <dt><code>-s</code></dt> <dd><p>Discard the first <var>count</var> lines read. </p></dd> <dt><code>-t</code></dt> <dd><p>Remove a trailing <var>delim</var> (default newline) from each line read. </p></dd> <dt><code>-u</code></dt> <dd><p>Read lines from file descriptor <var>fd</var> instead of the standard input. </p></dd> <dt><code>-C</code></dt> <dd><p>Evaluate <var>callback</var> each time <var>quantum</var> lines are read. The <samp>-c</samp> option specifies <var>quantum</var>. </p></dd> <dt><code>-c</code></dt> <dd><p>Specify the number of lines read between each call to <var>callback</var>. </p></dd> </dl> <p>If <samp>-C</samp> is specified without <samp>-c</samp>, the default quantum is 5000. When <var>callback</var> is evaluated, it is supplied the index of the next array element to be assigned and the line to be assigned to that element as additional arguments. <var>callback</var> is evaluated after the line is read but before the array element is assigned. </p> <p>If not supplied with an explicit origin, <code>mapfile</code> will clear <var>array</var> before assigning to it. </p> <p><code>mapfile</code> returns successfully unless an invalid option or option argument is supplied, <var>array</var> is invalid or unassignable, or <var>array</var> is not an indexed array. </p> </dd> <dt><code>printf</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-printf"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">printf [-v <var>var</var>] <var>format</var> [<var>arguments</var>] </pre></div> <p>Write the formatted <var>arguments</var> to the standard output under the control of the <var>format</var>. The <samp>-v</samp> option causes the output to be assigned to the variable <var>var</var> rather than being printed to the standard output. </p> <p>The <var>format</var> is a character string which contains three types of objects: plain characters, which are simply copied to standard output, character escape sequences, which are converted and copied to the standard output, and format specifications, each of which causes printing of the next successive <var>argument</var>. In addition to the standard <code>printf(1)</code> formats, <code>printf</code> interprets the following extensions: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>%b</code></dt> <dd><p>Causes <code>printf</code> to expand backslash escape sequences in the corresponding <var>argument</var> in the same way as <code>echo -e</code> (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </p></dd> <dt><code>%q</code></dt> <dd><p>Causes <code>printf</code> to output the corresponding <var>argument</var> in a format that can be reused as shell input. </p></dd> <dt><code>%(<var>datefmt</var>)T</code></dt> <dd><p>Causes <code>printf</code> to output the date-time string resulting from using <var>datefmt</var> as a format string for <code>strftime</code>(3). The corresponding <var>argument</var> is an integer representing the number of seconds since the epoch. Two special argument values may be used: -1 represents the current time, and -2 represents the time the shell was invoked. If no argument is specified, conversion behaves as if -1 had been given. This is an exception to the usual <code>printf</code> behavior. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The %b, %q, and %T directives all use the field width and precision arguments from the format specification and write that many bytes from (or use that wide a field for) the expanded argument, which usually contains more characters than the original. </p> <p>Arguments to non-string format specifiers are treated as C language constants, except that a leading plus or minus sign is allowed, and if the leading character is a single or double quote, the value is the ASCII value of the following character. </p> <p>The <var>format</var> is reused as necessary to consume all of the <var>arguments</var>. If the <var>format</var> requires more <var>arguments</var> than are supplied, the extra format specifications behave as if a zero value or null string, as appropriate, had been supplied. The return value is zero on success, non-zero on failure. </p> </dd> <dt><code>read</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-read"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">read [-ers] [-a <var>aname</var>] [-d <var>delim</var>] [-i <var>text</var>] [-n <var>nchars</var>] [-N <var>nchars</var>] [-p <var>prompt</var>] [-t <var>timeout</var>] [-u <var>fd</var>] [<var>name</var> …] </pre></div> <p>One line is read from the standard input, or from the file descriptor <var>fd</var> supplied as an argument to the <samp>-u</samp> option, split into words as described above in <a href="#Word-Splitting">Word Splitting</a>, and the first word is assigned to the first <var>name</var>, the second word to the second <var>name</var>, and so on. If there are more words than names, the remaining words and their intervening delimiters are assigned to the last <var>name</var>. If there are fewer words read from the input stream than names, the remaining names are assigned empty values. The characters in the value of the <code>IFS</code> variable are used to split the line into words using the same rules the shell uses for expansion (described above in <a href="#Word-Splitting">Word Splitting</a>). The backslash character ‘<samp>\</samp>’ may be used to remove any special meaning for the next character read and for line continuation. </p> <p>Options, if supplied, have the following meanings: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-a <var>aname</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The words are assigned to sequential indices of the array variable <var>aname</var>, starting at 0. All elements are removed from <var>aname</var> before the assignment. Other <var>name</var> arguments are ignored. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-d <var>delim</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The first character of <var>delim</var> is used to terminate the input line, rather than newline. If <var>delim</var> is the empty string, <code>read</code> will terminate a line when it reads a NUL character. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-e</code></dt> <dd><p>Readline (see <a href="#Command-Line-Editing">Command Line Editing</a>) is used to obtain the line. Readline uses the current (or default, if line editing was not previously active) editing settings, but uses Readline’s default filename completion. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-i <var>text</var></code></dt> <dd><p>If Readline is being used to read the line, <var>text</var> is placed into the editing buffer before editing begins. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-n <var>nchars</var></code></dt> <dd><p><code>read</code> returns after reading <var>nchars</var> characters rather than waiting for a complete line of input, but honors a delimiter if fewer than <var>nchars</var> characters are read before the delimiter. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-N <var>nchars</var></code></dt> <dd><p><code>read</code> returns after reading exactly <var>nchars</var> characters rather than waiting for a complete line of input, unless EOF is encountered or <code>read</code> times out. Delimiter characters encountered in the input are not treated specially and do not cause <code>read</code> to return until <var>nchars</var> characters are read. The result is not split on the characters in <code>IFS</code>; the intent is that the variable is assigned exactly the characters read (with the exception of backslash; see the <samp>-r</samp> option below). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-p <var>prompt</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Display <var>prompt</var>, without a trailing newline, before attempting to read any input. The prompt is displayed only if input is coming from a terminal. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-r</code></dt> <dd><p>If this option is given, backslash does not act as an escape character. The backslash is considered to be part of the line. In particular, a backslash-newline pair may not then be used as a line continuation. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-s</code></dt> <dd><p>Silent mode. If input is coming from a terminal, characters are not echoed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-t <var>timeout</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Cause <code>read</code> to time out and return failure if a complete line of input (or a specified number of characters) is not read within <var>timeout</var> seconds. <var>timeout</var> may be a decimal number with a fractional portion following the decimal point. This option is only effective if <code>read</code> is reading input from a terminal, pipe, or other special file; it has no effect when reading from regular files. If <code>read</code> times out, <code>read</code> saves any partial input read into the specified variable <var>name</var>. If <var>timeout</var> is 0, <code>read</code> returns immediately, without trying to read any data. The exit status is 0 if input is available on the specified file descriptor, non-zero otherwise. The exit status is greater than 128 if the timeout is exceeded. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-u <var>fd</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Read input from file descriptor <var>fd</var>. </p></dd> </dl> <p>If no <var>name</var>s are supplied, the line read, without the ending delimiter but otherwise unmodified, is assigned to the variable <code>REPLY</code>. The exit status is zero, unless end-of-file is encountered, <code>read</code> times out (in which case the status is greater than 128), a variable assignment error (such as assigning to a readonly variable) occurs, or an invalid file descriptor is supplied as the argument to <samp>-u</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>readarray</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-readarray"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">readarray [-d <var>delim</var>] [-n <var>count</var>] [-O <var>origin</var>] [-s <var>count</var>] [-t] [-u <var>fd</var>] [-C <var>callback</var>] [-c <var>quantum</var>] [<var>array</var>] </pre></div> <p>Read lines from the standard input into the indexed array variable <var>array</var>, or from file descriptor <var>fd</var> if the <samp>-u</samp> option is supplied. </p> <p>A synonym for <code>mapfile</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>source</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-source"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">source <var>filename</var> </pre></div> <p>A synonym for <code>.</code> (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>type</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-type"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">type [-afptP] [<var>name</var> …] </pre></div> <p>For each <var>name</var>, indicate how it would be interpreted if used as a command name. </p> <p>If the <samp>-t</samp> option is used, <code>type</code> prints a single word which is one of ‘<samp>alias</samp>’, ‘<samp>function</samp>’, ‘<samp>builtin</samp>’, ‘<samp>file</samp>’ or ‘<samp>keyword</samp>’, if <var>name</var> is an alias, shell function, shell builtin, disk file, or shell reserved word, respectively. If the <var>name</var> is not found, then nothing is printed, and <code>type</code> returns a failure status. </p> <p>If the <samp>-p</samp> option is used, <code>type</code> either returns the name of the disk file that would be executed, or nothing if <samp>-t</samp> would not return ‘<samp>file</samp>’. </p> <p>The <samp>-P</samp> option forces a path search for each <var>name</var>, even if <samp>-t</samp> would not return ‘<samp>file</samp>’. </p> <p>If a command is hashed, <samp>-p</samp> and <samp>-P</samp> print the hashed value, which is not necessarily the file that appears first in <code>$PATH</code>. </p> <p>If the <samp>-a</samp> option is used, <code>type</code> returns all of the places that contain an executable named <var>file</var>. This includes aliases and functions, if and only if the <samp>-p</samp> option is not also used. </p> <p>If the <samp>-f</samp> option is used, <code>type</code> does not attempt to find shell functions, as with the <code>command</code> builtin. </p> <p>The return status is zero if all of the <var>names</var> are found, non-zero if any are not found. </p> </dd> <dt><code>typeset</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-typeset"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">typeset [-afFgrxilnrtux] [-p] [<var>name</var>[=<var>value</var>] …] </pre></div> <p>The <code>typeset</code> command is supplied for compatibility with the Korn shell. It is a synonym for the <code>declare</code> builtin command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>ulimit</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-ulimit"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">ulimit [-HS] -a ulimit [-HS] [-bcdefiklmnpqrstuvxPRT] [<var>limit</var>] </pre></div> <p><code>ulimit</code> provides control over the resources available to processes started by the shell, on systems that allow such control. If an option is given, it is interpreted as follows: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-S</code></dt> <dd><p>Change and report the soft limit associated with a resource. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-H</code></dt> <dd><p>Change and report the hard limit associated with a resource. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-a</code></dt> <dd><p>All current limits are reported; no limits are set. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-b</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum socket buffer size. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-c</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum size of core files created. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-d</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum size of a process’s data segment. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-e</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum scheduling priority ("nice"). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-f</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum size of files written by the shell and its children. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-i</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of pending signals. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-k</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of kqueues that may be allocated. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-l</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum size that may be locked into memory. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-m</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum resident set size (many systems do not honor this limit). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-n</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of open file descriptors (most systems do not allow this value to be set). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-p</code></dt> <dd><p>The pipe buffer size. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-q</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of bytes in <small>POSIX</small> message queues. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-r</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum real-time scheduling priority. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-s</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum stack size. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-t</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum amount of cpu time in seconds. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-u</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of processes available to a single user. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-v</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum amount of virtual memory available to the shell, and, on some systems, to its children. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-x</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of file locks. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-P</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of pseudoterminals. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-R</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum time a real-time process can run before blocking, in microseconds. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-T</code></dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of threads. </p></dd> </dl> <p>If <var>limit</var> is given, and the <samp>-a</samp> option is not used, <var>limit</var> is the new value of the specified resource. The special <var>limit</var> values <code>hard</code>, <code>soft</code>, and <code>unlimited</code> stand for the current hard limit, the current soft limit, and no limit, respectively. A hard limit cannot be increased by a non-root user once it is set; a soft limit may be increased up to the value of the hard limit. Otherwise, the current value of the soft limit for the specified resource is printed, unless the <samp>-H</samp> option is supplied. When more than one resource is specified, the limit name and unit, if appropriate, are printed before the value. When setting new limits, if neither <samp>-H</samp> nor <samp>-S</samp> is supplied, both the hard and soft limits are set. If no option is given, then <samp>-f</samp> is assumed. Values are in 1024-byte increments, except for <samp>-t</samp>, which is in seconds; <samp>-R</samp>, which is in microseconds; <samp>-p</samp>, which is in units of 512-byte blocks; <samp>-P</samp>, <samp>-T</samp>, <samp>-b</samp>, <samp>-k</samp>, <samp>-n</samp> and <samp>-u</samp>, which are unscaled values; and, when in <small>POSIX</small> Mode (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>), <samp>-c</samp> and <samp>-f</samp>, which are in 512-byte increments. </p> <p>The return status is zero unless an invalid option or argument is supplied, or an error occurs while setting a new limit. </p> </dd> <dt><code>unalias</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-unalias"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">unalias [-a] [<var>name</var> … ] </pre></div> <p>Remove each <var>name</var> from the list of aliases. If <samp>-a</samp> is supplied, all aliases are removed. Aliases are described in <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Modifying-Shell-Behavior"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Special-Builtins" accesskey="n" rel="next">Special Builtins</a>, Previous: <a href="#Bash-Builtins" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bash Builtins</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Builtin-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Builtin Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Modifying-Shell-Behavior-1"></span><h3 class="section">4.3 Modifying Shell Behavior</h3> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#The-Set-Builtin" accesskey="1">The Set Builtin</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Change the values of shell attributes and positional parameters. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin" accesskey="2">The Shopt Builtin</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Modify shell optional behavior. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="The-Set-Builtin"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin" accesskey="n" rel="next">The Shopt Builtin</a>, Up: <a href="#Modifying-Shell-Behavior" accesskey="u" rel="up">Modifying Shell Behavior</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="The-Set-Builtin-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">4.3.1 The Set Builtin</h4> <p>This builtin is so complicated that it deserves its own section. <code>set</code> allows you to change the values of shell options and set the positional parameters, or to display the names and values of shell variables. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>set</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-set"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">set [--abefhkmnptuvxBCEHPT] [-o <var>option-name</var>] [<var>argument</var> …] set [+abefhkmnptuvxBCEHPT] [+o <var>option-name</var>] [<var>argument</var> …] </pre></div> <p>If no options or arguments are supplied, <code>set</code> displays the names and values of all shell variables and functions, sorted according to the current locale, in a format that may be reused as input for setting or resetting the currently-set variables. Read-only variables cannot be reset. In <small>POSIX</small> mode, only shell variables are listed. </p> <p>When options are supplied, they set or unset shell attributes. Options, if specified, have the following meanings: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-a</code></dt> <dd><p>Each variable or function that is created or modified is given the export attribute and marked for export to the environment of subsequent commands. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-b</code></dt> <dd><p>Cause the status of terminated background jobs to be reported immediately, rather than before printing the next primary prompt. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-e</code></dt> <dd><p>Exit immediately if a pipeline (see <a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a>), which may consist of a single simple command (see <a href="#Simple-Commands">Simple Commands</a>), a list (see <a href="#Lists">Lists</a>), or a compound command (see <a href="#Compound-Commands">Compound Commands</a>) returns a non-zero status. The shell does not exit if the command that fails is part of the command list immediately following a <code>while</code> or <code>until</code> keyword, part of the test in an <code>if</code> statement, part of any command executed in a <code>&&</code> or <code>||</code> list except the command following the final <code>&&</code> or <code>||</code>, any command in a pipeline but the last, or if the command’s return status is being inverted with <code>!</code>. If a compound command other than a subshell returns a non-zero status because a command failed while <samp>-e</samp> was being ignored, the shell does not exit. A trap on <code>ERR</code>, if set, is executed before the shell exits. </p> <p>This option applies to the shell environment and each subshell environment separately (see <a href="#Command-Execution-Environment">Command Execution Environment</a>), and may cause subshells to exit before executing all the commands in the subshell. </p> <p>If a compound command or shell function executes in a context where <samp>-e</samp> is being ignored, none of the commands executed within the compound command or function body will be affected by the <samp>-e</samp> setting, even if <samp>-e</samp> is set and a command returns a failure status. If a compound command or shell function sets <samp>-e</samp> while executing in a context where <samp>-e</samp> is ignored, that setting will not have any effect until the compound command or the command containing the function call completes. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-f</code></dt> <dd><p>Disable filename expansion (globbing). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-h</code></dt> <dd><p>Locate and remember (hash) commands as they are looked up for execution. This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-k</code></dt> <dd><p>All arguments in the form of assignment statements are placed in the environment for a command, not just those that precede the command name. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-m</code></dt> <dd><p>Job control is enabled (see <a href="#Job-Control">Job Control</a>). All processes run in a separate process group. When a background job completes, the shell prints a line containing its exit status. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-n</code></dt> <dd><p>Read commands but do not execute them. This may be used to check a script for syntax errors. This option is ignored by interactive shells. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-o <var>option-name</var></code></dt> <dd> <p>Set the option corresponding to <var>option-name</var>: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>allexport</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-a</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>braceexpand</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-B</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>emacs</code></dt> <dd><p>Use an <code>emacs</code>-style line editing interface (see <a href="#Command-Line-Editing">Command Line Editing</a>). This also affects the editing interface used for <code>read -e</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>errexit</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-e</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>errtrace</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-E</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>functrace</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-T</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>hashall</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-h</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>histexpand</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-H</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>history</code></dt> <dd><p>Enable command history, as described in <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a>. This option is on by default in interactive shells. </p> </dd> <dt><code>ignoreeof</code></dt> <dd><p>An interactive shell will not exit upon reading EOF. </p> </dd> <dt><code>keyword</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-k</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>monitor</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-m</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>noclobber</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-C</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>noexec</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-n</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>noglob</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-f</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>nolog</code></dt> <dd><p>Currently ignored. </p> </dd> <dt><code>notify</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-b</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>nounset</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-u</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>onecmd</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-t</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>physical</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-P</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>pipefail</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, the return value of a pipeline is the value of the last (rightmost) command to exit with a non-zero status, or zero if all commands in the pipeline exit successfully. This option is disabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>posix</code></dt> <dd><p>Change the behavior of Bash where the default operation differs from the <small>POSIX</small> standard to match the standard (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>). This is intended to make Bash behave as a strict superset of that standard. </p> </dd> <dt><code>privileged</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-p</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>verbose</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-v</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>vi</code></dt> <dd><p>Use a <code>vi</code>-style line editing interface. This also affects the editing interface used for <code>read -e</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>xtrace</code></dt> <dd><p>Same as <code>-x</code>. </p></dd> </dl> </dd> <dt><code>-p</code></dt> <dd><p>Turn on privileged mode. In this mode, the <code>$BASH_ENV</code> and <code>$ENV</code> files are not processed, shell functions are not inherited from the environment, and the <code>SHELLOPTS</code>, <code>BASHOPTS</code>, <code>CDPATH</code> and <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> variables, if they appear in the environment, are ignored. If the shell is started with the effective user (group) id not equal to the real user (group) id, and the <samp>-p</samp> option is not supplied, these actions are taken and the effective user id is set to the real user id. If the <samp>-p</samp> option is supplied at startup, the effective user id is not reset. Turning this option off causes the effective user and group ids to be set to the real user and group ids. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-t</code></dt> <dd><p>Exit after reading and executing one command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-u</code></dt> <dd><p>Treat unset variables and parameters other than the special parameters ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’ as an error when performing parameter expansion. An error message will be written to the standard error, and a non-interactive shell will exit. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-v</code></dt> <dd><p>Print shell input lines as they are read. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-x</code></dt> <dd><p>Print a trace of simple commands, <code>for</code> commands, <code>case</code> commands, <code>select</code> commands, and arithmetic <code>for</code> commands and their arguments or associated word lists after they are expanded and before they are executed. The value of the <code>PS4</code> variable is expanded and the resultant value is printed before the command and its expanded arguments. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-B</code></dt> <dd><p>The shell will perform brace expansion (see <a href="#Brace-Expansion">Brace Expansion</a>). This option is on by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-C</code></dt> <dd><p>Prevent output redirection using ‘<samp>></samp>’, ‘<samp>>&</samp>’, and ‘<samp><></samp>’ from overwriting existing files. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-E</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, any trap on <code>ERR</code> is inherited by shell functions, command substitutions, and commands executed in a subshell environment. The <code>ERR</code> trap is normally not inherited in such cases. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-H</code></dt> <dd><p>Enable ‘<samp>!</samp>’ style history substitution (see <a href="#History-Interaction">History Interaction</a>). This option is on by default for interactive shells. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-P</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, do not resolve symbolic links when performing commands such as <code>cd</code> which change the current directory. The physical directory is used instead. By default, Bash follows the logical chain of directories when performing commands which change the current directory. </p> <p>For example, if <samp>/usr/sys</samp> is a symbolic link to <samp>/usr/local/sys</samp> then: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">$ cd /usr/sys; echo $PWD /usr/sys $ cd ..; pwd /usr </pre></div> <p>If <code>set -P</code> is on, then: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">$ cd /usr/sys; echo $PWD /usr/local/sys $ cd ..; pwd /usr/local </pre></div> </dd> <dt><code>-T</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, any trap on <code>DEBUG</code> and <code>RETURN</code> are inherited by shell functions, command substitutions, and commands executed in a subshell environment. The <code>DEBUG</code> and <code>RETURN</code> traps are normally not inherited in such cases. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--</code></dt> <dd><p>If no arguments follow this option, then the positional parameters are unset. Otherwise, the positional parameters are set to the <var>arguments</var>, even if some of them begin with a ‘<samp>-</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-</code></dt> <dd><p>Signal the end of options, cause all remaining <var>arguments</var> to be assigned to the positional parameters. The <samp>-x</samp> and <samp>-v</samp> options are turned off. If there are no arguments, the positional parameters remain unchanged. </p></dd> </dl> <p>Using ‘<samp>+</samp>’ rather than ‘<samp>-</samp>’ causes these options to be turned off. The options can also be used upon invocation of the shell. The current set of options may be found in <code>$-</code>. </p> <p>The remaining N <var>arguments</var> are positional parameters and are assigned, in order, to <code>$1</code>, <code>$2</code>, … <code>$N</code>. The special parameter <code>#</code> is set to N. </p> <p>The return status is always zero unless an invalid option is supplied. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="The-Shopt-Builtin"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#The-Set-Builtin" accesskey="p" rel="prev">The Set Builtin</a>, Up: <a href="#Modifying-Shell-Behavior" accesskey="u" rel="up">Modifying Shell Behavior</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="The-Shopt-Builtin-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">4.3.2 The Shopt Builtin</h4> <p>This builtin allows you to change additional shell optional behavior. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>shopt</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-shopt"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">shopt [-pqsu] [-o] [<var>optname</var> …] </pre></div> <p>Toggle the values of settings controlling optional shell behavior. The settings can be either those listed below, or, if the <samp>-o</samp> option is used, those available with the <samp>-o</samp> option to the <code>set</code> builtin command (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). With no options, or with the <samp>-p</samp> option, a list of all settable options is displayed, with an indication of whether or not each is set; if <var>optnames</var> are supplied, the output is restricted to those options. The <samp>-p</samp> option causes output to be displayed in a form that may be reused as input. Other options have the following meanings: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-s</code></dt> <dd><p>Enable (set) each <var>optname</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-u</code></dt> <dd><p>Disable (unset) each <var>optname</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-q</code></dt> <dd><p>Suppresses normal output; the return status indicates whether the <var>optname</var> is set or unset. If multiple <var>optname</var> arguments are given with <samp>-q</samp>, the return status is zero if all <var>optnames</var> are enabled; non-zero otherwise. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-o</code></dt> <dd><p>Restricts the values of <var>optname</var> to be those defined for the <samp>-o</samp> option to the <code>set</code> builtin (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). </p></dd> </dl> <p>If either <samp>-s</samp> or <samp>-u</samp> is used with no <var>optname</var> arguments, <code>shopt</code> shows only those options which are set or unset, respectively. </p> <p>Unless otherwise noted, the <code>shopt</code> options are disabled (off) by default. </p> <p>The return status when listing options is zero if all <var>optnames</var> are enabled, non-zero otherwise. When setting or unsetting options, the return status is zero unless an <var>optname</var> is not a valid shell option. </p> <p>The list of <code>shopt</code> options is: </p><dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>assoc_expand_once</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, the shell suppresses multiple evaluation of associative array subscripts during arithmetic expression evaluation, while executing builtins that can perform variable assignments, and while executing builtins that perform array dereferencing. </p> </dd> <dt><code>autocd</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, a command name that is the name of a directory is executed as if it were the argument to the <code>cd</code> command. This option is only used by interactive shells. </p> </dd> <dt><code>cdable_vars</code></dt> <dd><p>If this is set, an argument to the <code>cd</code> builtin command that is not a directory is assumed to be the name of a variable whose value is the directory to change to. </p> </dd> <dt><code>cdspell</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, minor errors in the spelling of a directory component in a <code>cd</code> command will be corrected. The errors checked for are transposed characters, a missing character, and a character too many. If a correction is found, the corrected path is printed, and the command proceeds. This option is only used by interactive shells. </p> </dd> <dt><code>checkhash</code></dt> <dd><p>If this is set, Bash checks that a command found in the hash table exists before trying to execute it. If a hashed command no longer exists, a normal path search is performed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>checkjobs</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash lists the status of any stopped and running jobs before exiting an interactive shell. If any jobs are running, this causes the exit to be deferred until a second exit is attempted without an intervening command (see <a href="#Job-Control">Job Control</a>). The shell always postpones exiting if any jobs are stopped. </p> </dd> <dt><code>checkwinsize</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash checks the window size after each external (non-builtin) command and, if necessary, updates the values of <code>LINES</code> and <code>COLUMNS</code>. This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>cmdhist</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash attempts to save all lines of a multiple-line command in the same history entry. This allows easy re-editing of multi-line commands. This option is enabled by default, but only has an effect if command history is enabled (see <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>compat31</code></dt> <dt><code>compat32</code></dt> <dt><code>compat40</code></dt> <dt><code>compat41</code></dt> <dt><code>compat42</code></dt> <dt><code>compat43</code></dt> <dt><code>compat44</code></dt> <dd><p>These control aspects of the shell’s compatibility mode (see <a href="#Shell-Compatibility-Mode">Shell Compatibility Mode</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>complete_fullquote</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash quotes all shell metacharacters in filenames and directory names when performing completion. If not set, Bash removes metacharacters such as the dollar sign from the set of characters that will be quoted in completed filenames when these metacharacters appear in shell variable references in words to be completed. This means that dollar signs in variable names that expand to directories will not be quoted; however, any dollar signs appearing in filenames will not be quoted, either. This is active only when bash is using backslashes to quote completed filenames. This variable is set by default, which is the default Bash behavior in versions through 4.2. </p> </dd> <dt><code>direxpand</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash replaces directory names with the results of word expansion when performing filename completion. This changes the contents of the readline editing buffer. If not set, Bash attempts to preserve what the user typed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>dirspell</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash attempts spelling correction on directory names during word completion if the directory name initially supplied does not exist. </p> </dd> <dt><code>dotglob</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash includes filenames beginning with a ‘.’ in the results of filename expansion. The filenames ‘<samp>.</samp>’ and ‘<samp>..</samp>’ must always be matched explicitly, even if <code>dotglob</code> is set. </p> </dd> <dt><code>execfail</code></dt> <dd><p>If this is set, a non-interactive shell will not exit if it cannot execute the file specified as an argument to the <code>exec</code> builtin command. An interactive shell does not exit if <code>exec</code> fails. </p> </dd> <dt><code>expand_aliases</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, aliases are expanded as described below under Aliases, <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>. This option is enabled by default for interactive shells. </p> </dd> <dt><code>extdebug</code></dt> <dd><p>If set at shell invocation, or in a shell startup file, arrange to execute the debugger profile before the shell starts, identical to the <samp>--debugger</samp> option. If set after invocation, behavior intended for use by debuggers is enabled: </p> <ol> <li> The <samp>-F</samp> option to the <code>declare</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>) displays the source file name and line number corresponding to each function name supplied as an argument. </li><li> If the command run by the <code>DEBUG</code> trap returns a non-zero value, the next command is skipped and not executed. </li><li> If the command run by the <code>DEBUG</code> trap returns a value of 2, and the shell is executing in a subroutine (a shell function or a shell script executed by the <code>.</code> or <code>source</code> builtins), the shell simulates a call to <code>return</code>. </li><li> <code>BASH_ARGC</code> and <code>BASH_ARGV</code> are updated as described in their descriptions (see <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>). </li><li> Function tracing is enabled: command substitution, shell functions, and subshells invoked with <code>( <var>command</var> )</code> inherit the <code>DEBUG</code> and <code>RETURN</code> traps. </li><li> Error tracing is enabled: command substitution, shell functions, and subshells invoked with <code>( <var>command</var> )</code> inherit the <code>ERR</code> trap. </li></ol> </dd> <dt><code>extglob</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, the extended pattern matching features described above (see <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>) are enabled. </p> </dd> <dt><code>extquote</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, <code>$'<var>string</var>'</code> and <code>$"<var>string</var>"</code> quoting is performed within <code>${<var>parameter</var>}</code> expansions enclosed in double quotes. This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>failglob</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, patterns which fail to match filenames during filename expansion result in an expansion error. </p> </dd> <dt><code>force_fignore</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, the suffixes specified by the <code>FIGNORE</code> shell variable cause words to be ignored when performing word completion even if the ignored words are the only possible completions. See <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>, for a description of <code>FIGNORE</code>. This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>globasciiranges</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, range expressions used in pattern matching bracket expressions (see <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>) behave as if in the traditional C locale when performing comparisons. That is, the current locale’s collating sequence is not taken into account, so ‘<samp>b</samp>’ will not collate between ‘<samp>A</samp>’ and ‘<samp>B</samp>’, and upper-case and lower-case ASCII characters will collate together. </p> </dd> <dt><code>globstar</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, the pattern ‘<samp>**</samp>’ used in a filename expansion context will match all files and zero or more directories and subdirectories. If the pattern is followed by a ‘<samp>/</samp>’, only directories and subdirectories match. </p> </dd> <dt><code>gnu_errfmt</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, shell error messages are written in the standard <small>GNU</small> error message format. </p> </dd> <dt><code>histappend</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, the history list is appended to the file named by the value of the <code>HISTFILE</code> variable when the shell exits, rather than overwriting the file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>histreedit</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, and Readline is being used, a user is given the opportunity to re-edit a failed history substitution. </p> </dd> <dt><code>histverify</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, and Readline is being used, the results of history substitution are not immediately passed to the shell parser. Instead, the resulting line is loaded into the Readline editing buffer, allowing further modification. </p> </dd> <dt><code>hostcomplete</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, and Readline is being used, Bash will attempt to perform hostname completion when a word containing a ‘<samp>@</samp>’ is being completed (see <a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a>). This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>huponexit</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash will send <code>SIGHUP</code> to all jobs when an interactive login shell exits (see <a href="#Signals">Signals</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>inherit_errexit</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, command substitution inherits the value of the <code>errexit</code> option, instead of unsetting it in the subshell environment. This option is enabled when <small>POSIX</small> mode is enabled. </p> </dd> <dt><code>interactive_comments</code></dt> <dd><p>Allow a word beginning with ‘<samp>#</samp>’ to cause that word and all remaining characters on that line to be ignored in an interactive shell. This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>lastpipe</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, and job control is not active, the shell runs the last command of a pipeline not executed in the background in the current shell environment. </p> </dd> <dt><code>lithist</code></dt> <dd><p>If enabled, and the <code>cmdhist</code> option is enabled, multi-line commands are saved to the history with embedded newlines rather than using semicolon separators where possible. </p> </dd> <dt><code>localvar_inherit</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, local variables inherit the value and attributes of a variable of the same name that exists at a previous scope before any new value is assigned. The <var>nameref</var> attribute is not inherited. </p> </dd> <dt><code>localvar_unset</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, calling <code>unset</code> on local variables in previous function scopes marks them so subsequent lookups find them unset until that function returns. This is identical to the behavior of unsetting local variables at the current function scope. </p> </dd> <dt><code>login_shell</code></dt> <dd><p>The shell sets this option if it is started as a login shell (see <a href="#Invoking-Bash">Invoking Bash</a>). The value may not be changed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>mailwarn</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, and a file that Bash is checking for mail has been accessed since the last time it was checked, the message <code>"The mail in <var>mailfile</var> has been read"</code> is displayed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>no_empty_cmd_completion</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, and Readline is being used, Bash will not attempt to search the <code>PATH</code> for possible completions when completion is attempted on an empty line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>nocaseglob</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash matches filenames in a case-insensitive fashion when performing filename expansion. </p> </dd> <dt><code>nocasematch</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash matches patterns in a case-insensitive fashion when performing matching while executing <code>case</code> or <code>[[</code> conditional commands, when performing pattern substitution word expansions, or when filtering possible completions as part of programmable completion. </p> </dd> <dt><code>nullglob</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash allows filename patterns which match no files to expand to a null string, rather than themselves. </p> </dd> <dt><code>progcomp</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, the programmable completion facilities (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>) are enabled. This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>progcomp_alias</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, and programmable completion is enabled, Bash treats a command name that doesn’t have any completions as a possible alias and attempts alias expansion. If it has an alias, Bash attempts programmable completion using the command word resulting from the expanded alias. </p> </dd> <dt><code>promptvars</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, prompt strings undergo parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal after being expanded as described below (see <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt">Controlling the Prompt</a>). This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>restricted_shell</code></dt> <dd><p>The shell sets this option if it is started in restricted mode (see <a href="#The-Restricted-Shell">The Restricted Shell</a>). The value may not be changed. This is not reset when the startup files are executed, allowing the startup files to discover whether or not a shell is restricted. </p> </dd> <dt><code>shift_verbose</code></dt> <dd><p>If this is set, the <code>shift</code> builtin prints an error message when the shift count exceeds the number of positional parameters. </p> </dd> <dt><code>sourcepath</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, the <code>source</code> builtin uses the value of <code>PATH</code> to find the directory containing the file supplied as an argument. This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>xpg_echo</code></dt> <dd><p>If set, the <code>echo</code> builtin expands backslash-escape sequences by default. </p> </dd> </dl> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Special-Builtins"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Modifying-Shell-Behavior" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Modifying Shell Behavior</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Builtin-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Builtin Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Special-Builtins-1"></span><h3 class="section">4.4 Special Builtins</h3> <span id="index-special-builtin-1"></span> <p>For historical reasons, the <small>POSIX</small> standard has classified several builtin commands as <em>special</em>. When Bash is executing in <small>POSIX</small> mode, the special builtins differ from other builtin commands in three respects: </p> <ol> <li> Special builtins are found before shell functions during command lookup. </li><li> If a special builtin returns an error status, a non-interactive shell exits. </li><li> Assignment statements preceding the command stay in effect in the shell environment after the command completes. </li></ol> <p>When Bash is not executing in <small>POSIX</small> mode, these builtins behave no differently than the rest of the Bash builtin commands. The Bash <small>POSIX</small> mode is described in <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>. </p> <p>These are the <small>POSIX</small> special builtins: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">break : . continue eval exec exit export readonly return set<!-- /@w --> shift trap unset<!-- /@w --> </pre></div> <hr> <span id="Shell-Variables"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="n" rel="next">Bash Features</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Builtin-Commands" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Builtin Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Variables-1"></span><h2 class="chapter">5 Shell Variables</h2> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables" accesskey="1">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Variables which Bash uses in the same way as the Bourne Shell. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bash-Variables" accesskey="2">Bash Variables</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">List of variables that exist in Bash. </td></tr> </table> <p>This chapter describes the shell variables that Bash uses. Bash automatically assigns default values to a number of variables. </p> <hr> <span id="Bourne-Shell-Variables"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Bash-Variables" accesskey="n" rel="next">Bash Variables</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Variables" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Variables</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bourne-Shell-Variables-1"></span><h3 class="section">5.1 Bourne Shell Variables</h3> <p>Bash uses certain shell variables in the same way as the Bourne shell. In some cases, Bash assigns a default value to the variable. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>CDPATH</code> <span id="index-CDPATH"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of directories used as a search path for the <code>cd</code> builtin command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HOME</code> <span id="index-HOME"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The current user’s home directory; the default for the <code>cd</code> builtin command. The value of this variable is also used by tilde expansion (see <a href="#Tilde-Expansion">Tilde Expansion</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>IFS</code> <span id="index-IFS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A list of characters that separate fields; used when the shell splits words as part of expansion. </p> </dd> <dt><code>MAIL</code> <span id="index-MAIL"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If this parameter is set to a filename or directory name and the <code>MAILPATH</code> variable is not set, Bash informs the user of the arrival of mail in the specified file or Maildir-format directory. </p> </dd> <dt><code>MAILPATH</code> <span id="index-MAILPATH"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of filenames which the shell periodically checks for new mail. Each list entry can specify the message that is printed when new mail arrives in the mail file by separating the filename from the message with a ‘<samp>?</samp>’. When used in the text of the message, <code>$_</code> expands to the name of the current mail file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>OPTARG</code> <span id="index-OPTARG"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The value of the last option argument processed by the <code>getopts</code> builtin. </p> </dd> <dt><code>OPTIND</code> <span id="index-OPTIND"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The index of the last option argument processed by the <code>getopts</code> builtin. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PATH</code> <span id="index-PATH"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of directories in which the shell looks for commands. A zero-length (null) directory name in the value of <code>PATH</code> indicates the current directory. A null directory name may appear as two adjacent colons, or as an initial or trailing colon. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PS1</code> <span id="index-PS1"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The primary prompt string. The default value is ‘<samp>\s-\v\$ </samp>’. See <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt">Controlling the Prompt</a>, for the complete list of escape sequences that are expanded before <code>PS1</code> is displayed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PS2</code> <span id="index-PS2"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The secondary prompt string. The default value is ‘<samp>> </samp>’. <code>PS2</code> is expanded in the same way as <code>PS1</code> before being displayed. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Bash-Variables"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bourne Shell Variables</a>, Up: <a href="#Shell-Variables" accesskey="u" rel="up">Shell Variables</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bash-Variables-1"></span><h3 class="section">5.2 Bash Variables</h3> <p>These variables are set or used by Bash, but other shells do not normally treat them specially. </p> <p>A few variables used by Bash are described in different chapters: variables for controlling the job control facilities (see <a href="#Job-Control-Variables">Job Control Variables</a>). </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>_</code> <span id="index-_005f"></span> </dt> <dd><span id="index-_0024_005f"></span> <p>($_, an underscore.) At shell startup, set to the pathname used to invoke the shell or shell script being executed as passed in the environment or argument list. Subsequently, expands to the last argument to the previous simple command executed in the foreground, after expansion. Also set to the full pathname used to invoke each command executed and placed in the environment exported to that command. When checking mail, this parameter holds the name of the mail file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH</code> <span id="index-BASH"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The full pathname used to execute the current instance of Bash. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASHOPTS</code> <span id="index-BASHOPTS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of enabled shell options. Each word in the list is a valid argument for the <samp>-s</samp> option to the <code>shopt</code> builtin command (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>). The options appearing in <code>BASHOPTS</code> are those reported as ‘<samp>on</samp>’ by ‘<samp>shopt</samp>’. If this variable is in the environment when Bash starts up, each shell option in the list will be enabled before reading any startup files. This variable is readonly. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASHPID</code> <span id="index-BASHPID"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Expands to the process ID of the current Bash process. This differs from <code>$$</code> under certain circumstances, such as subshells that do not require Bash to be re-initialized. Assignments to <code>BASHPID</code> have no effect. If <code>BASHPID</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_ALIASES</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fALIASES"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An associative array variable whose members correspond to the internal list of aliases as maintained by the <code>alias</code> builtin. (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). Elements added to this array appear in the alias list; however, unsetting array elements currently does not cause aliases to be removed from the alias list. If <code>BASH_ALIASES</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_ARGC</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fARGC"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable whose values are the number of parameters in each frame of the current bash execution call stack. The number of parameters to the current subroutine (shell function or script executed with <code>.</code> or <code>source</code>) is at the top of the stack. When a subroutine is executed, the number of parameters passed is pushed onto <code>BASH_ARGC</code>. The shell sets <code>BASH_ARGC</code> only when in extended debugging mode (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a> for a description of the <code>extdebug</code> option to the <code>shopt</code> builtin). Setting <code>extdebug</code> after the shell has started to execute a script, or referencing this variable when <code>extdebug</code> is not set, may result in inconsistent values. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_ARGV</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fARGV"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable containing all of the parameters in the current bash execution call stack. The final parameter of the last subroutine call is at the top of the stack; the first parameter of the initial call is at the bottom. When a subroutine is executed, the parameters supplied are pushed onto <code>BASH_ARGV</code>. The shell sets <code>BASH_ARGV</code> only when in extended debugging mode (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a> for a description of the <code>extdebug</code> option to the <code>shopt</code> builtin). Setting <code>extdebug</code> after the shell has started to execute a script, or referencing this variable when <code>extdebug</code> is not set, may result in inconsistent values. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_ARGV0</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fARGV0"></span> </dt> <dd><p>When referenced, this variable expands to the name of the shell or shell script (identical to <code>$0</code>; See <a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a>, for the description of special parameter 0). Assignment to <code>BASH_ARGV0</code> causes the value assigned to also be assigned to <code>$0</code>. If <code>BASH_ARGV0</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_CMDS</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fCMDS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An associative array variable whose members correspond to the internal hash table of commands as maintained by the <code>hash</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). Elements added to this array appear in the hash table; however, unsetting array elements currently does not cause command names to be removed from the hash table. If <code>BASH_CMDS</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_COMMAND</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fCOMMAND"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The command currently being executed or about to be executed, unless the shell is executing a command as the result of a trap, in which case it is the command executing at the time of the trap. If <code>BASH_COMMAND</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_COMPAT</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fCOMPAT"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The value is used to set the shell’s compatibility level. See <a href="#Shell-Compatibility-Mode">Shell Compatibility Mode</a>, for a description of the various compatibility levels and their effects. The value may be a decimal number (e.g., 4.2) or an integer (e.g., 42) corresponding to the desired compatibility level. If <code>BASH_COMPAT</code> is unset or set to the empty string, the compatibility level is set to the default for the current version. If <code>BASH_COMPAT</code> is set to a value that is not one of the valid compatibility levels, the shell prints an error message and sets the compatibility level to the default for the current version. The valid values correspond to the compatibility levels described below (see <a href="#Shell-Compatibility-Mode">Shell Compatibility Mode</a>). For example, 4.2 and 42 are valid values that correspond to the <code>compat42</code> <code>shopt</code> option and set the compatibility level to 42. The current version is also a valid value. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_ENV</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fENV"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If this variable is set when Bash is invoked to execute a shell script, its value is expanded and used as the name of a startup file to read before executing the script. See <a href="#Bash-Startup-Files">Bash Startup Files</a>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_EXECUTION_STRING</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fEXECUTION_005fSTRING"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The command argument to the <samp>-c</samp> invocation option. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_LINENO</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fLINENO"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable whose members are the line numbers in source files where each corresponding member of <var>FUNCNAME</var> was invoked. <code>${BASH_LINENO[$i]}</code> is the line number in the source file (<code>${BASH_SOURCE[$i+1]}</code>) where <code>${FUNCNAME[$i]}</code> was called (or <code>${BASH_LINENO[$i-1]}</code> if referenced within another shell function). Use <code>LINENO</code> to obtain the current line number. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_LOADABLES_PATH</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fLOADABLES_005fPATH"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of directories in which the shell looks for dynamically loadable builtins specified by the <code>enable</code> command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_REMATCH</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fREMATCH"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable whose members are assigned by the ‘<samp>=~</samp>’ binary operator to the <code>[[</code> conditional command (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>). The element with index 0 is the portion of the string matching the entire regular expression. The element with index <var>n</var> is the portion of the string matching the <var>n</var>th parenthesized subexpression. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_SOURCE</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fSOURCE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable whose members are the source filenames where the corresponding shell function names in the <code>FUNCNAME</code> array variable are defined. The shell function <code>${FUNCNAME[$i]}</code> is defined in the file <code>${BASH_SOURCE[$i]}</code> and called from <code>${BASH_SOURCE[$i+1]}</code> </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_SUBSHELL</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fSUBSHELL"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Incremented by one within each subshell or subshell environment when the shell begins executing in that environment. The initial value is 0. If <code>BASH_SUBSHELL</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_VERSINFO</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fVERSINFO"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A readonly array variable (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>) whose members hold version information for this instance of Bash. The values assigned to the array members are as follows: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>BASH_VERSINFO[0]</code></dt> <dd><p>The major version number (the <var>release</var>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_VERSINFO[1]</code></dt> <dd><p>The minor version number (the <var>version</var>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_VERSINFO[2]</code></dt> <dd><p>The patch level. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_VERSINFO[3]</code></dt> <dd><p>The build version. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_VERSINFO[4]</code></dt> <dd><p>The release status (e.g., <var>beta1</var>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_VERSINFO[5]</code></dt> <dd><p>The value of <code>MACHTYPE</code>. </p></dd> </dl> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_VERSION</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fVERSION"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The version number of the current instance of Bash. </p> </dd> <dt><code>BASH_XTRACEFD</code> <span id="index-BASH_005fXTRACEFD"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If set to an integer corresponding to a valid file descriptor, Bash will write the trace output generated when ‘<samp>set -x</samp>’ is enabled to that file descriptor. This allows tracing output to be separated from diagnostic and error messages. The file descriptor is closed when <code>BASH_XTRACEFD</code> is unset or assigned a new value. Unsetting <code>BASH_XTRACEFD</code> or assigning it the empty string causes the trace output to be sent to the standard error. Note that setting <code>BASH_XTRACEFD</code> to 2 (the standard error file descriptor) and then unsetting it will result in the standard error being closed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>CHILD_MAX</code> <span id="index-CHILD_005fMAX"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Set the number of exited child status values for the shell to remember. Bash will not allow this value to be decreased below a <small>POSIX</small>-mandated minimum, and there is a maximum value (currently 8192) that this may not exceed. The minimum value is system-dependent. </p> </dd> <dt><code>COLUMNS</code> <span id="index-COLUMNS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Used by the <code>select</code> command to determine the terminal width when printing selection lists. Automatically set if the <code>checkwinsize</code> option is enabled (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>), or in an interactive shell upon receipt of a <code>SIGWINCH</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>COMP_CWORD</code> <span id="index-COMP_005fCWORD"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An index into <code>${COMP_WORDS}</code> of the word containing the current cursor position. This variable is available only in shell functions invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>COMP_LINE</code> <span id="index-COMP_005fLINE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The current command line. This variable is available only in shell functions and external commands invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>COMP_POINT</code> <span id="index-COMP_005fPOINT"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The index of the current cursor position relative to the beginning of the current command. If the current cursor position is at the end of the current command, the value of this variable is equal to <code>${#COMP_LINE}</code>. This variable is available only in shell functions and external commands invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>COMP_TYPE</code> <span id="index-COMP_005fTYPE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Set to an integer value corresponding to the type of completion attempted that caused a completion function to be called: <var>TAB</var>, for normal completion, ‘<samp>?</samp>’, for listing completions after successive tabs, ‘<samp>!</samp>’, for listing alternatives on partial word completion, ‘<samp>@</samp>’, to list completions if the word is not unmodified, or ‘<samp>%</samp>’, for menu completion. This variable is available only in shell functions and external commands invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>COMP_KEY</code> <span id="index-COMP_005fKEY"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The key (or final key of a key sequence) used to invoke the current completion function. </p> </dd> <dt><code>COMP_WORDBREAKS</code> <span id="index-COMP_005fWORDBREAKS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The set of characters that the Readline library treats as word separators when performing word completion. If <code>COMP_WORDBREAKS</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>COMP_WORDS</code> <span id="index-COMP_005fWORDS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable consisting of the individual words in the current command line. The line is split into words as Readline would split it, using <code>COMP_WORDBREAKS</code> as described above. This variable is available only in shell functions invoked by the programmable completion facilities (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>COMPREPLY</code> <span id="index-COMPREPLY"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable from which Bash reads the possible completions generated by a shell function invoked by the programmable completion facility (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>). Each array element contains one possible completion. </p> </dd> <dt><code>COPROC</code> <span id="index-COPROC"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable created to hold the file descriptors for output from and input to an unnamed coprocess (see <a href="#Coprocesses">Coprocesses</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>DIRSTACK</code> <span id="index-DIRSTACK"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable containing the current contents of the directory stack. Directories appear in the stack in the order they are displayed by the <code>dirs</code> builtin. Assigning to members of this array variable may be used to modify directories already in the stack, but the <code>pushd</code> and <code>popd</code> builtins must be used to add and remove directories. Assignment to this variable will not change the current directory. If <code>DIRSTACK</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>EMACS</code> <span id="index-EMACS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If Bash finds this variable in the environment when the shell starts with value ‘<samp>t</samp>’, it assumes that the shell is running in an Emacs shell buffer and disables line editing. </p> </dd> <dt><code>ENV</code> <span id="index-ENV"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Expanded and executed similarlty to <code>BASH_ENV</code> (see <a href="#Bash-Startup-Files">Bash Startup Files</a>) when an interactive shell is invoked in <small>POSIX</small> Mode (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>EPOCHREALTIME</code> <span id="index-EPOCHREALTIME"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to the number of seconds since the Unix Epoch as a floating point value with micro-second granularity (see the documentation for the C library function <var>time</var> for the definition of Epoch). Assignments to <code>EPOCHREALTIME</code> are ignored. If <code>EPOCHREALTIME</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>EPOCHSECONDS</code> <span id="index-EPOCHSECONDS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to the number of seconds since the Unix Epoch (see the documentation for the C library function <var>time</var> for the definition of Epoch). Assignments to <code>EPOCHSECONDS</code> are ignored. If <code>EPOCHSECONDS</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>EUID</code> <span id="index-EUID"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The numeric effective user id of the current user. This variable is readonly. </p> </dd> <dt><code>EXECIGNORE</code> <span id="index-EXECIGNORE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of shell patterns (see <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>) defining the list of filenames to be ignored by command search using <code>PATH</code>. Files whose full pathnames match one of these patterns are not considered executable files for the purposes of completion and command execution via <code>PATH</code> lookup. This does not affect the behavior of the <code>[</code>, <code>test</code>, and <code>[[</code> commands. Full pathnames in the command hash table are not subject to <code>EXECIGNORE</code>. Use this variable to ignore shared library files that have the executable bit set, but are not executable files. The pattern matching honors the setting of the <code>extglob</code> shell option. </p> </dd> <dt><code>FCEDIT</code> <span id="index-FCEDIT"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The editor used as a default by the <samp>-e</samp> option to the <code>fc</code> builtin command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>FIGNORE</code> <span id="index-FIGNORE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of suffixes to ignore when performing filename completion. A filename whose suffix matches one of the entries in <code>FIGNORE</code> is excluded from the list of matched filenames. A sample value is ‘<samp>.o:~</samp>’ </p> </dd> <dt><code>FUNCNAME</code> <span id="index-FUNCNAME"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable containing the names of all shell functions currently in the execution call stack. The element with index 0 is the name of any currently-executing shell function. The bottom-most element (the one with the highest index) is <code>"main"</code>. This variable exists only when a shell function is executing. Assignments to <code>FUNCNAME</code> have no effect. If <code>FUNCNAME</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> <p>This variable can be used with <code>BASH_LINENO</code> and <code>BASH_SOURCE</code>. Each element of <code>FUNCNAME</code> has corresponding elements in <code>BASH_LINENO</code> and <code>BASH_SOURCE</code> to describe the call stack. For instance, <code>${FUNCNAME[$i]}</code> was called from the file <code>${BASH_SOURCE[$i+1]}</code> at line number <code>${BASH_LINENO[$i]}</code>. The <code>caller</code> builtin displays the current call stack using this information. </p> </dd> <dt><code>FUNCNEST</code> <span id="index-FUNCNEST"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If set to a numeric value greater than 0, defines a maximum function nesting level. Function invocations that exceed this nesting level will cause the current command to abort. </p> </dd> <dt><code>GLOBIGNORE</code> <span id="index-GLOBIGNORE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of patterns defining the set of file names to be ignored by filename expansion. If a file name matched by a filename expansion pattern also matches one of the patterns in <code>GLOBIGNORE</code>, it is removed from the list of matches. The pattern matching honors the setting of the <code>extglob</code> shell option. </p> </dd> <dt><code>GROUPS</code> <span id="index-GROUPS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable containing the list of groups of which the current user is a member. Assignments to <code>GROUPS</code> have no effect. If <code>GROUPS</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>histchars</code> <span id="index-histchars"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Up to three characters which control history expansion, quick substitution, and tokenization (see <a href="#History-Interaction">History Interaction</a>). The first character is the <var>history expansion</var> character, that is, the character which signifies the start of a history expansion, normally ‘<samp>!</samp>’. The second character is the character which signifies ‘quick substitution’ when seen as the first character on a line, normally ‘<samp>^</samp>’. The optional third character is the character which indicates that the remainder of the line is a comment when found as the first character of a word, usually ‘<samp>#</samp>’. The history comment character causes history substitution to be skipped for the remaining words on the line. It does not necessarily cause the shell parser to treat the rest of the line as a comment. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HISTCMD</code> <span id="index-HISTCMD"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The history number, or index in the history list, of the current command. Assignments to <code>HISTCMD</code> are ignored. If <code>HISTCMD</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HISTCONTROL</code> <span id="index-HISTCONTROL"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of values controlling how commands are saved on the history list. If the list of values includes ‘<samp>ignorespace</samp>’, lines which begin with a space character are not saved in the history list. A value of ‘<samp>ignoredups</samp>’ causes lines which match the previous history entry to not be saved. A value of ‘<samp>ignoreboth</samp>’ is shorthand for ‘<samp>ignorespace</samp>’ and ‘<samp>ignoredups</samp>’. A value of ‘<samp>erasedups</samp>’ causes all previous lines matching the current line to be removed from the history list before that line is saved. Any value not in the above list is ignored. If <code>HISTCONTROL</code> is unset, or does not include a valid value, all lines read by the shell parser are saved on the history list, subject to the value of <code>HISTIGNORE</code>. The second and subsequent lines of a multi-line compound command are not tested, and are added to the history regardless of the value of <code>HISTCONTROL</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HISTFILE</code> <span id="index-HISTFILE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The name of the file to which the command history is saved. The default value is <samp>~/.bash_history</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HISTFILESIZE</code> <span id="index-HISTFILESIZE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of lines contained in the history file. When this variable is assigned a value, the history file is truncated, if necessary, to contain no more than that number of lines by removing the oldest entries. The history file is also truncated to this size after writing it when a shell exits. If the value is 0, the history file is truncated to zero size. Non-numeric values and numeric values less than zero inhibit truncation. The shell sets the default value to the value of <code>HISTSIZE</code> after reading any startup files. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HISTIGNORE</code> <span id="index-HISTIGNORE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of patterns used to decide which command lines should be saved on the history list. Each pattern is anchored at the beginning of the line and must match the complete line (no implicit ‘<samp>*</samp>’ is appended). Each pattern is tested against the line after the checks specified by <code>HISTCONTROL</code> are applied. In addition to the normal shell pattern matching characters, ‘<samp>&</samp>’ matches the previous history line. ‘<samp>&</samp>’ may be escaped using a backslash; the backslash is removed before attempting a match. The second and subsequent lines of a multi-line compound command are not tested, and are added to the history regardless of the value of <code>HISTIGNORE</code>. The pattern matching honors the setting of the <code>extglob</code> shell option. </p> <p><code>HISTIGNORE</code> subsumes the function of <code>HISTCONTROL</code>. A pattern of ‘<samp>&</samp>’ is identical to <code>ignoredups</code>, and a pattern of ‘<samp>[ ]*</samp>’ is identical to <code>ignorespace</code>. Combining these two patterns, separating them with a colon, provides the functionality of <code>ignoreboth</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HISTSIZE</code> <span id="index-HISTSIZE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The maximum number of commands to remember on the history list. If the value is 0, commands are not saved in the history list. Numeric values less than zero result in every command being saved on the history list (there is no limit). The shell sets the default value to 500 after reading any startup files. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HISTTIMEFORMAT</code> <span id="index-HISTTIMEFORMAT"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If this variable is set and not null, its value is used as a format string for <var>strftime</var> to print the time stamp associated with each history entry displayed by the <code>history</code> builtin. If this variable is set, time stamps are written to the history file so they may be preserved across shell sessions. This uses the history comment character to distinguish timestamps from other history lines. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HOSTFILE</code> <span id="index-HOSTFILE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Contains the name of a file in the same format as <samp>/etc/hosts</samp> that should be read when the shell needs to complete a hostname. The list of possible hostname completions may be changed while the shell is running; the next time hostname completion is attempted after the value is changed, Bash adds the contents of the new file to the existing list. If <code>HOSTFILE</code> is set, but has no value, or does not name a readable file, Bash attempts to read <samp>/etc/hosts</samp> to obtain the list of possible hostname completions. When <code>HOSTFILE</code> is unset, the hostname list is cleared. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HOSTNAME</code> <span id="index-HOSTNAME"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The name of the current host. </p> </dd> <dt><code>HOSTTYPE</code> <span id="index-HOSTTYPE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A string describing the machine Bash is running on. </p> </dd> <dt><code>IGNOREEOF</code> <span id="index-IGNOREEOF"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Controls the action of the shell on receipt of an <code>EOF</code> character as the sole input. If set, the value denotes the number of consecutive <code>EOF</code> characters that can be read as the first character on an input line before the shell will exit. If the variable exists but does not have a numeric value, or has no value, then the default is 10. If the variable does not exist, then <code>EOF</code> signifies the end of input to the shell. This is only in effect for interactive shells. </p> </dd> <dt><code>INPUTRC</code> <span id="index-INPUTRC"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The name of the Readline initialization file, overriding the default of <samp>~/.inputrc</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>INSIDE_EMACS</code> <span id="index-INSIDE_005fEMACS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If Bash finds this variable in the environment when the shell starts, it assumes that the shell is running in an Emacs shell buffer and may disable line editing depending on the value of <code>TERM</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>LANG</code> <span id="index-LANG"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Used to determine the locale category for any category not specifically selected with a variable starting with <code>LC_</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>LC_ALL</code> <span id="index-LC_005fALL"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This variable overrides the value of <code>LANG</code> and any other <code>LC_</code> variable specifying a locale category. </p> </dd> <dt><code>LC_COLLATE</code> <span id="index-LC_005fCOLLATE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This variable determines the collation order used when sorting the results of filename expansion, and determines the behavior of range expressions, equivalence classes, and collating sequences within filename expansion and pattern matching (see <a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>LC_CTYPE</code> <span id="index-LC_005fCTYPE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This variable determines the interpretation of characters and the behavior of character classes within filename expansion and pattern matching (see <a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>LC_MESSAGES</code> <span id="index-LC_005fMESSAGES-1"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This variable determines the locale used to translate double-quoted strings preceded by a ‘<samp>$</samp>’ (see <a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>LC_NUMERIC</code> <span id="index-LC_005fNUMERIC"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This variable determines the locale category used for number formatting. </p> </dd> <dt><code>LC_TIME</code> <span id="index-LC_005fTIME"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This variable determines the locale category used for data and time formatting. </p> </dd> <dt><code>LINENO</code> <span id="index-LINENO"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The line number in the script or shell function currently executing. If <code>LINENO</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>LINES</code> <span id="index-LINES"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Used by the <code>select</code> command to determine the column length for printing selection lists. Automatically set if the <code>checkwinsize</code> option is enabled (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>), or in an interactive shell upon receipt of a <code>SIGWINCH</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>MACHTYPE</code> <span id="index-MACHTYPE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A string that fully describes the system type on which Bash is executing, in the standard <small>GNU</small> <var>cpu-company-system</var> format. </p> </dd> <dt><code>MAILCHECK</code> <span id="index-MAILCHECK"></span> </dt> <dd><p>How often (in seconds) that the shell should check for mail in the files specified in the <code>MAILPATH</code> or <code>MAIL</code> variables. The default is 60 seconds. When it is time to check for mail, the shell does so before displaying the primary prompt. If this variable is unset, or set to a value that is not a number greater than or equal to zero, the shell disables mail checking. </p> </dd> <dt><code>MAPFILE</code> <span id="index-MAPFILE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable created to hold the text read by the <code>mapfile</code> builtin when no variable name is supplied. </p> </dd> <dt><code>OLDPWD</code> <span id="index-OLDPWD"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The previous working directory as set by the <code>cd</code> builtin. </p> </dd> <dt><code>OPTERR</code> <span id="index-OPTERR"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If set to the value 1, Bash displays error messages generated by the <code>getopts</code> builtin command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>OSTYPE</code> <span id="index-OSTYPE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A string describing the operating system Bash is running on. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PIPESTATUS</code> <span id="index-PIPESTATUS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>An array variable (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>) containing a list of exit status values from the processes in the most-recently-executed foreground pipeline (which may contain only a single command). </p> </dd> <dt><code>POSIXLY_CORRECT</code> <span id="index-POSIXLY_005fCORRECT"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If this variable is in the environment when Bash starts, the shell enters <small>POSIX</small> mode (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>) before reading the startup files, as if the <samp>--posix</samp> invocation option had been supplied. If it is set while the shell is running, Bash enables <small>POSIX</small> mode, as if the command </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><code>set -o posix</code> </pre></div> <p>had been executed. When the shell enters <small>POSIX</small> mode, it sets this variable if it was not already set. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PPID</code> <span id="index-PPID"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The process <small>ID</small> of the shell’s parent process. This variable is readonly. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PROMPT_COMMAND</code> <span id="index-PROMPT_005fCOMMAND"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If this variable is set, and is an array, the value of each set element is interpreted as a command to execute before printing the primary prompt (<code>$PS1</code>). If this is set but not an array variable, its value is used as a command to execute instead. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PROMPT_DIRTRIM</code> <span id="index-PROMPT_005fDIRTRIM"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If set to a number greater than zero, the value is used as the number of trailing directory components to retain when expanding the <code>\w</code> and <code>\W</code> prompt string escapes (see <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt">Controlling the Prompt</a>). Characters removed are replaced with an ellipsis. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PS0</code> <span id="index-PS0"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The value of this parameter is expanded like <code>PS1</code> and displayed by interactive shells after reading a command and before the command is executed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PS3</code> <span id="index-PS3"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The value of this variable is used as the prompt for the <code>select</code> command. If this variable is not set, the <code>select</code> command prompts with ‘<samp>#? </samp>’ </p> </dd> <dt><code>PS4</code> <span id="index-PS4"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The value of this parameter is expanded like <var>PS1</var> and the expanded value is the prompt printed before the command line is echoed when the <samp>-x</samp> option is set (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). The first character of the expanded value is replicated multiple times, as necessary, to indicate multiple levels of indirection. The default is ‘<samp>+ </samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>PWD</code> <span id="index-PWD"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The current working directory as set by the <code>cd</code> builtin. </p> </dd> <dt><code>RANDOM</code> <span id="index-RANDOM"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to a random integer between 0 and 32767. Assigning a value to this variable seeds the random number generator. If <code>RANDOM</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>READLINE_LINE</code> <span id="index-READLINE_005fLINE"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The contents of the Readline line buffer, for use with ‘<samp>bind -x</samp>’ (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>READLINE_MARK</code> <span id="index-READLINE_005fMARK"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The position of the <var>mark</var> (saved insertion point) in the Readline line buffer, for use with ‘<samp>bind -x</samp>’ (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). The characters between the insertion point and the mark are often called the <var>region</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>READLINE_POINT</code> <span id="index-READLINE_005fPOINT"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The position of the insertion point in the Readline line buffer, for use with ‘<samp>bind -x</samp>’ (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>REPLY</code> <span id="index-REPLY"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The default variable for the <code>read</code> builtin. </p> </dd> <dt><code>SECONDS</code> <span id="index-SECONDS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This variable expands to the number of seconds since the shell was started. Assignment to this variable resets the count to the value assigned, and the expanded value becomes the value assigned plus the number of seconds since the assignment. The number of seconds at shell invocation and the current time is always determined by querying the system clock. If <code>SECONDS</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>SHELL</code> <span id="index-SHELL"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This environment variable expands to the full pathname to the shell. If it is not set when the shell starts, Bash assigns to it the full pathname of the current user’s login shell. </p> </dd> <dt><code>SHELLOPTS</code> <span id="index-SHELLOPTS"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A colon-separated list of enabled shell options. Each word in the list is a valid argument for the <samp>-o</samp> option to the <code>set</code> builtin command (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). The options appearing in <code>SHELLOPTS</code> are those reported as ‘<samp>on</samp>’ by ‘<samp>set -o</samp>’. If this variable is in the environment when Bash starts up, each shell option in the list will be enabled before reading any startup files. This variable is readonly. </p> </dd> <dt><code>SHLVL</code> <span id="index-SHLVL"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Incremented by one each time a new instance of Bash is started. This is intended to be a count of how deeply your Bash shells are nested. </p> </dd> <dt><code>SRANDOM</code> <span id="index-SRANDOM"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This variable expands to a 32-bit pseudo-random number each time it is referenced. The random number generator is not linear on systems that support <samp>/dev/urandom</samp> or <code>arc4random</code>, so each returned number has no relationship to the numbers preceding it. The random number generator cannot be seeded, so assignments to this variable have no effect. If <code>SRANDOM</code> is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is subsequently reset. </p> </dd> <dt><code>TIMEFORMAT</code> <span id="index-TIMEFORMAT"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The value of this parameter is used as a format string specifying how the timing information for pipelines prefixed with the <code>time</code> reserved word should be displayed. The ‘<samp>%</samp>’ character introduces an escape sequence that is expanded to a time value or other information. The escape sequences and their meanings are as follows; the braces denote optional portions. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>%%</code></dt> <dd><p>A literal ‘<samp>%</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>%[<var>p</var>][l]R</code></dt> <dd><p>The elapsed time in seconds. </p> </dd> <dt><code>%[<var>p</var>][l]U</code></dt> <dd><p>The number of CPU seconds spent in user mode. </p> </dd> <dt><code>%[<var>p</var>][l]S</code></dt> <dd><p>The number of CPU seconds spent in system mode. </p> </dd> <dt><code>%P</code></dt> <dd><p>The CPU percentage, computed as (%U + %S) / %R. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The optional <var>p</var> is a digit specifying the precision, the number of fractional digits after a decimal point. A value of 0 causes no decimal point or fraction to be output. At most three places after the decimal point may be specified; values of <var>p</var> greater than 3 are changed to 3. If <var>p</var> is not specified, the value 3 is used. </p> <p>The optional <code>l</code> specifies a longer format, including minutes, of the form <var>MM</var>m<var>SS</var>.<var>FF</var>s. The value of <var>p</var> determines whether or not the fraction is included. </p> <p>If this variable is not set, Bash acts as if it had the value </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><code>$'\nreal\t%3lR\nuser\t%3lU\nsys\t%3lS'</code> </pre></div> <p>If the value is null, no timing information is displayed. A trailing newline is added when the format string is displayed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>TMOUT</code> <span id="index-TMOUT"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If set to a value greater than zero, <code>TMOUT</code> is treated as the default timeout for the <code>read</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). The <code>select</code> command (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>) terminates if input does not arrive after <code>TMOUT</code> seconds when input is coming from a terminal. </p> <p>In an interactive shell, the value is interpreted as the number of seconds to wait for a line of input after issuing the primary prompt. Bash terminates after waiting for that number of seconds if a complete line of input does not arrive. </p> </dd> <dt><code>TMPDIR</code> <span id="index-TMPDIR"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If set, Bash uses its value as the name of a directory in which Bash creates temporary files for the shell’s use. </p> </dd> <dt><code>UID</code> <span id="index-UID"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The numeric real user id of the current user. This variable is readonly. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Bash-Features"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Job-Control" accesskey="n" rel="next">Job Control</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Variables" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Variables</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bash-Features-2"></span><h2 class="chapter">6 Bash Features</h2> <p>This chapter describes features unique to Bash. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Invoking-Bash" accesskey="1">Invoking Bash</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Command line options that you can give to Bash. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bash-Startup-Files" accesskey="2">Bash Startup Files</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">When and how Bash executes scripts. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Interactive-Shells" accesskey="3">Interactive Shells</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">What an interactive shell is. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bash-Conditional-Expressions" accesskey="4">Bash Conditional Expressions</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Primitives used in composing expressions for the <code>test</code> builtin. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic" accesskey="5">Shell Arithmetic</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Arithmetic on shell variables. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Aliases" accesskey="6">Aliases</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Substituting one command for another. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Arrays" accesskey="7">Arrays</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Array Variables. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#The-Directory-Stack" accesskey="8">The Directory Stack</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">History of visited directories. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt" accesskey="9">Controlling the Prompt</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Customizing the various prompt strings. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#The-Restricted-Shell">The Restricted Shell</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A more controlled mode of shell execution. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Making Bash behave more closely to what the POSIX standard specifies. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Shell-Compatibility-Mode">Shell Compatibility Mode</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How Bash supports behavior that was present in earlier versions and has changed. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Invoking-Bash"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Bash-Startup-Files" accesskey="n" rel="next">Bash Startup Files</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Invoking-Bash-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.1 Invoking Bash</h3> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">bash [long-opt] [-ir] [-abefhkmnptuvxdBCDHP] [-o <var>option</var>] [-O <var>shopt_option</var>] [<var>argument</var> …] bash [long-opt] [-abefhkmnptuvxdBCDHP] [-o <var>option</var>] [-O <var>shopt_option</var>] -c <var>string</var> [<var>argument</var> …] bash [long-opt] -s [-abefhkmnptuvxdBCDHP] [-o <var>option</var>] [-O <var>shopt_option</var>] [<var>argument</var> …] </pre></div> <p>All of the single-character options used with the <code>set</code> builtin (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>) can be used as options when the shell is invoked. In addition, there are several multi-character options that you can use. These options must appear on the command line before the single-character options to be recognized. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>--debugger</code></dt> <dd><p>Arrange for the debugger profile to be executed before the shell starts. Turns on extended debugging mode (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a> for a description of the <code>extdebug</code> option to the <code>shopt</code> builtin). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--dump-po-strings</code></dt> <dd><p>A list of all double-quoted strings preceded by ‘<samp>$</samp>’ is printed on the standard output in the <small>GNU</small> <code>gettext</code> PO (portable object) file format. Equivalent to <samp>-D</samp> except for the output format. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--dump-strings</code></dt> <dd><p>Equivalent to <samp>-D</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--help</code></dt> <dd><p>Display a usage message on standard output and exit successfully. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--init-file <var>filename</var></code></dt> <dt><code>--rcfile <var>filename</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Execute commands from <var>filename</var> (instead of <samp>~/.bashrc</samp>) in an interactive shell. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--login</code></dt> <dd><p>Equivalent to <samp>-l</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--noediting</code></dt> <dd><p>Do not use the <small>GNU</small> Readline library (see <a href="#Command-Line-Editing">Command Line Editing</a>) to read command lines when the shell is interactive. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--noprofile</code></dt> <dd><p>Don’t load the system-wide startup file <samp>/etc/profile</samp> or any of the personal initialization files <samp>~/.bash_profile</samp>, <samp>~/.bash_login</samp>, or <samp>~/.profile</samp> when Bash is invoked as a login shell. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--norc</code></dt> <dd><p>Don’t read the <samp>~/.bashrc</samp> initialization file in an interactive shell. This is on by default if the shell is invoked as <code>sh</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--posix</code></dt> <dd><p>Change the behavior of Bash where the default operation differs from the <small>POSIX</small> standard to match the standard. This is intended to make Bash behave as a strict superset of that standard. See <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>, for a description of the Bash <small>POSIX</small> mode. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--restricted</code></dt> <dd><p>Make the shell a restricted shell (see <a href="#The-Restricted-Shell">The Restricted Shell</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--verbose</code></dt> <dd><p>Equivalent to <samp>-v</samp>. Print shell input lines as they’re read. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--version</code></dt> <dd><p>Show version information for this instance of Bash on the standard output and exit successfully. </p></dd> </dl> <p>There are several single-character options that may be supplied at invocation which are not available with the <code>set</code> builtin. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-c</code></dt> <dd><p>Read and execute commands from the first non-option argument <var>command_string</var>, then exit. If there are arguments after the <var>command_string</var>, the first argument is assigned to <code>$0</code> and any remaining arguments are assigned to the positional parameters. The assignment to <code>$0</code> sets the name of the shell, which is used in warning and error messages. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-i</code></dt> <dd><p>Force the shell to run interactively. Interactive shells are described in <a href="#Interactive-Shells">Interactive Shells</a>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-l</code></dt> <dd><p>Make this shell act as if it had been directly invoked by login. When the shell is interactive, this is equivalent to starting a login shell with ‘<samp>exec -l bash</samp>’. When the shell is not interactive, the login shell startup files will be executed. ‘<samp>exec bash -l</samp>’ or ‘<samp>exec bash --login</samp>’ will replace the current shell with a Bash login shell. See <a href="#Bash-Startup-Files">Bash Startup Files</a>, for a description of the special behavior of a login shell. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-r</code></dt> <dd><p>Make the shell a restricted shell (see <a href="#The-Restricted-Shell">The Restricted Shell</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-s</code></dt> <dd><p>If this option is present, or if no arguments remain after option processing, then commands are read from the standard input. This option allows the positional parameters to be set when invoking an interactive shell or when reading input through a pipe. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-D</code></dt> <dd><p>A list of all double-quoted strings preceded by ‘<samp>$</samp>’ is printed on the standard output. These are the strings that are subject to language translation when the current locale is not <code>C</code> or <code>POSIX</code> (see <a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a>). This implies the <samp>-n</samp> option; no commands will be executed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>[-+]O [<var>shopt_option</var>]</code></dt> <dd><p><var>shopt_option</var> is one of the shell options accepted by the <code>shopt</code> builtin (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>). If <var>shopt_option</var> is present, <samp>-O</samp> sets the value of that option; <samp>+O</samp> unsets it. If <var>shopt_option</var> is not supplied, the names and values of the shell options accepted by <code>shopt</code> are printed on the standard output. If the invocation option is <samp>+O</samp>, the output is displayed in a format that may be reused as input. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--</code></dt> <dd><p>A <code>--</code> signals the end of options and disables further option processing. Any arguments after the <code>--</code> are treated as filenames and arguments. </p></dd> </dl> <span id="index-login-shell"></span> <p>A <em>login</em> shell is one whose first character of argument zero is ‘<samp>-</samp>’, or one invoked with the <samp>--login</samp> option. </p> <span id="index-interactive-shell"></span> <p>An <em>interactive</em> shell is one started without non-option arguments, unless <samp>-s</samp> is specified, without specifying the <samp>-c</samp> option, and whose input and output are both connected to terminals (as determined by <code>isatty(3)</code>), or one started with the <samp>-i</samp> option. See <a href="#Interactive-Shells">Interactive Shells</a>, for more information. </p> <p>If arguments remain after option processing, and neither the <samp>-c</samp> nor the <samp>-s</samp> option has been supplied, the first argument is assumed to be the name of a file containing shell commands (see <a href="#Shell-Scripts">Shell Scripts</a>). When Bash is invoked in this fashion, <code>$0</code> is set to the name of the file, and the positional parameters are set to the remaining arguments. Bash reads and executes commands from this file, then exits. Bash’s exit status is the exit status of the last command executed in the script. If no commands are executed, the exit status is 0. </p> <hr> <span id="Bash-Startup-Files"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Interactive-Shells" accesskey="n" rel="next">Interactive Shells</a>, Previous: <a href="#Invoking-Bash" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Invoking Bash</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bash-Startup-Files-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.2 Bash Startup Files</h3> <span id="index-startup-files"></span> <p>This section describes how Bash executes its startup files. If any of the files exist but cannot be read, Bash reports an error. Tildes are expanded in filenames as described above under Tilde Expansion (see <a href="#Tilde-Expansion">Tilde Expansion</a>). </p> <p>Interactive shells are described in <a href="#Interactive-Shells">Interactive Shells</a>. </p> <span id="Invoked-as-an-interactive-login-shell_002c-or-with-_002d_002dlogin"></span><h4 class="subsubheading">Invoked as an interactive login shell, or with <samp>--login</samp></h4> <p>When Bash is invoked as an interactive login shell, or as a non-interactive shell with the <samp>--login</samp> option, it first reads and executes commands from the file <samp>/etc/profile</samp>, if that file exists. After reading that file, it looks for <samp>~/.bash_profile</samp>, <samp>~/.bash_login</samp>, and <samp>~/.profile</samp>, in that order, and reads and executes commands from the first one that exists and is readable. The <samp>--noprofile</samp> option may be used when the shell is started to inhibit this behavior. </p> <p>When an interactive login shell exits, or a non-interactive login shell executes the <code>exit</code> builtin command, Bash reads and executes commands from the file <samp>~/.bash_logout</samp>, if it exists. </p> <span id="Invoked-as-an-interactive-non_002dlogin-shell"></span><h4 class="subsubheading">Invoked as an interactive non-login shell</h4> <p>When an interactive shell that is not a login shell is started, Bash reads and executes commands from <samp>~/.bashrc</samp>, if that file exists. This may be inhibited by using the <samp>--norc</samp> option. The <samp>--rcfile <var>file</var></samp> option will force Bash to read and execute commands from <var>file</var> instead of <samp>~/.bashrc</samp>. </p> <p>So, typically, your <samp>~/.bash_profile</samp> contains the line </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><code>if [ -f ~/.bashrc ]; then . ~/.bashrc; fi</code> </pre></div> <p>after (or before) any login-specific initializations. </p> <span id="Invoked-non_002dinteractively"></span><h4 class="subsubheading">Invoked non-interactively</h4> <p>When Bash is started non-interactively, to run a shell script, for example, it looks for the variable <code>BASH_ENV</code> in the environment, expands its value if it appears there, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. Bash behaves as if the following command were executed: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><code>if [ -n "$BASH_ENV" ]; then . "$BASH_ENV"; fi</code> </pre></div> <p>but the value of the <code>PATH</code> variable is not used to search for the filename. </p> <p>As noted above, if a non-interactive shell is invoked with the <samp>--login</samp> option, Bash attempts to read and execute commands from the login shell startup files. </p> <span id="Invoked-with-name-sh"></span><h4 class="subsubheading">Invoked with name <code>sh</code></h4> <p>If Bash is invoked with the name <code>sh</code>, it tries to mimic the startup behavior of historical versions of <code>sh</code> as closely as possible, while conforming to the <small>POSIX</small> standard as well. </p> <p>When invoked as an interactive login shell, or as a non-interactive shell with the <samp>--login</samp> option, it first attempts to read and execute commands from <samp>/etc/profile</samp> and <samp>~/.profile</samp>, in that order. The <samp>--noprofile</samp> option may be used to inhibit this behavior. When invoked as an interactive shell with the name <code>sh</code>, Bash looks for the variable <code>ENV</code>, expands its value if it is defined, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. Since a shell invoked as <code>sh</code> does not attempt to read and execute commands from any other startup files, the <samp>--rcfile</samp> option has no effect. A non-interactive shell invoked with the name <code>sh</code> does not attempt to read any other startup files. </p> <p>When invoked as <code>sh</code>, Bash enters <small>POSIX</small> mode after the startup files are read. </p> <span id="Invoked-in-POSIX-mode"></span><h4 class="subsubheading">Invoked in <small>POSIX</small> mode</h4> <p>When Bash is started in <small>POSIX</small> mode, as with the <samp>--posix</samp> command line option, it follows the <small>POSIX</small> standard for startup files. In this mode, interactive shells expand the <code>ENV</code> variable and commands are read and executed from the file whose name is the expanded value. No other startup files are read. </p> <span id="Invoked-by-remote-shell-daemon"></span><h4 class="subsubheading">Invoked by remote shell daemon</h4> <p>Bash attempts to determine when it is being run with its standard input connected to a network connection, as when executed by the remote shell daemon, usually <code>rshd</code>, or the secure shell daemon <code>sshd</code>. If Bash determines it is being run in this fashion, it reads and executes commands from <samp>~/.bashrc</samp>, if that file exists and is readable. It will not do this if invoked as <code>sh</code>. The <samp>--norc</samp> option may be used to inhibit this behavior, and the <samp>--rcfile</samp> option may be used to force another file to be read, but neither <code>rshd</code> nor <code>sshd</code> generally invoke the shell with those options or allow them to be specified. </p> <span id="Invoked-with-unequal-effective-and-real-UID_002fGIDs"></span><h4 class="subsubheading">Invoked with unequal effective and real <small>UID/GID</small>s</h4> <p>If Bash is started with the effective user (group) id not equal to the real user (group) id, and the <samp>-p</samp> option is not supplied, no startup files are read, shell functions are not inherited from the environment, the <code>SHELLOPTS</code>, <code>BASHOPTS</code>, <code>CDPATH</code>, and <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> variables, if they appear in the environment, are ignored, and the effective user id is set to the real user id. If the <samp>-p</samp> option is supplied at invocation, the startup behavior is the same, but the effective user id is not reset. </p> <hr> <span id="Interactive-Shells"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Bash-Conditional-Expressions" accesskey="n" rel="next">Bash Conditional Expressions</a>, Previous: <a href="#Bash-Startup-Files" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bash Startup Files</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Interactive-Shells-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.3 Interactive Shells</h3> <span id="index-interactive-shell-1"></span> <span id="index-shell_002c-interactive"></span> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#What-is-an-Interactive-Shell_003f" accesskey="1">What is an Interactive Shell?</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">What determines whether a shell is Interactive. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Is-this-Shell-Interactive_003f" accesskey="2">Is this Shell Interactive?</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to tell if a shell is interactive. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Interactive-Shell-Behavior" accesskey="3">Interactive Shell Behavior</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">What changes in a interactive shell? </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="What-is-an-Interactive-Shell_003f"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Is-this-Shell-Interactive_003f" accesskey="n" rel="next">Is this Shell Interactive?</a>, Up: <a href="#Interactive-Shells" accesskey="u" rel="up">Interactive Shells</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="What-is-an-Interactive-Shell_003f-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">6.3.1 What is an Interactive Shell?</h4> <p>An interactive shell is one started without non-option arguments, unless <samp>-s</samp> is specified, without specifying the <samp>-c</samp> option, and whose input and error output are both connected to terminals (as determined by <code>isatty(3)</code>), or one started with the <samp>-i</samp> option. </p> <p>An interactive shell generally reads from and writes to a user’s terminal. </p> <p>The <samp>-s</samp> invocation option may be used to set the positional parameters when an interactive shell is started. </p> <hr> <span id="Is-this-Shell-Interactive_003f"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Interactive-Shell-Behavior" accesskey="n" rel="next">Interactive Shell Behavior</a>, Previous: <a href="#What-is-an-Interactive-Shell_003f" accesskey="p" rel="prev">What is an Interactive Shell?</a>, Up: <a href="#Interactive-Shells" accesskey="u" rel="up">Interactive Shells</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Is-this-Shell-Interactive_003f-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">6.3.2 Is this Shell Interactive?</h4> <p>To determine within a startup script whether or not Bash is running interactively, test the value of the ‘<samp>-</samp>’ special parameter. It contains <code>i</code> when the shell is interactive. For example: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">case "$-" in *i*) echo This shell is interactive ;; *) echo This shell is not interactive ;; esac </pre></div> <p>Alternatively, startup scripts may examine the variable <code>PS1</code>; it is unset in non-interactive shells, and set in interactive shells. Thus: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">if [ -z "$PS1" ]; then echo This shell is not interactive else echo This shell is interactive fi </pre></div> <hr> <span id="Interactive-Shell-Behavior"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Is-this-Shell-Interactive_003f" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Is this Shell Interactive?</a>, Up: <a href="#Interactive-Shells" accesskey="u" rel="up">Interactive Shells</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Interactive-Shell-Behavior-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">6.3.3 Interactive Shell Behavior</h4> <p>When the shell is running interactively, it changes its behavior in several ways. </p> <ol> <li> Startup files are read and executed as described in <a href="#Bash-Startup-Files">Bash Startup Files</a>. </li><li> Job Control (see <a href="#Job-Control">Job Control</a>) is enabled by default. When job control is in effect, Bash ignores the keyboard-generated job control signals <code>SIGTTIN</code>, <code>SIGTTOU</code>, and <code>SIGTSTP</code>. </li><li> Bash expands and displays <code>PS1</code> before reading the first line of a command, and expands and displays <code>PS2</code> before reading the second and subsequent lines of a multi-line command. Bash expands and displays <code>PS0</code> after it reads a command but before executing it. See <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt">Controlling the Prompt</a>, for a complete list of prompt string escape sequences. </li><li> Bash executes the values of the set elements of the <code>PROMPT_COMMANDS</code> array variable as commands before printing the primary prompt, <code>$PS1</code> (see <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>). </li><li> Readline (see <a href="#Command-Line-Editing">Command Line Editing</a>) is used to read commands from the user’s terminal. </li><li> Bash inspects the value of the <code>ignoreeof</code> option to <code>set -o</code> instead of exiting immediately when it receives an <code>EOF</code> on its standard input when reading a command (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). </li><li> Command history (see <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a>) and history expansion (see <a href="#History-Interaction">History Interaction</a>) are enabled by default. Bash will save the command history to the file named by <code>$HISTFILE</code> when a shell with history enabled exits. </li><li> Alias expansion (see <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>) is performed by default. </li><li> In the absence of any traps, Bash ignores <code>SIGTERM</code> (see <a href="#Signals">Signals</a>). </li><li> In the absence of any traps, <code>SIGINT</code> is caught and handled (see <a href="#Signals">Signals</a>). <code>SIGINT</code> will interrupt some shell builtins. </li><li> An interactive login shell sends a <code>SIGHUP</code> to all jobs on exit if the <code>huponexit</code> shell option has been enabled (see <a href="#Signals">Signals</a>). </li><li> The <samp>-n</samp> invocation option is ignored, and ‘<samp>set -n</samp>’ has no effect (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). </li><li> Bash will check for mail periodically, depending on the values of the <code>MAIL</code>, <code>MAILPATH</code>, and <code>MAILCHECK</code> shell variables (see <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>). </li><li> Expansion errors due to references to unbound shell variables after ‘<samp>set -u</samp>’ has been enabled will not cause the shell to exit (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). </li><li> The shell will not exit on expansion errors caused by <var>var</var> being unset or null in <code>${<var>var</var>:?<var>word</var>}</code> expansions (see <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>). </li><li> Redirection errors encountered by shell builtins will not cause the shell to exit. </li><li> When running in <small>POSIX</small> mode, a special builtin returning an error status will not cause the shell to exit (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>). </li><li> A failed <code>exec</code> will not cause the shell to exit (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). </li><li> Parser syntax errors will not cause the shell to exit. </li><li> Simple spelling correction for directory arguments to the <code>cd</code> builtin is enabled by default (see the description of the <code>cdspell</code> option to the <code>shopt</code> builtin in <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>). </li><li> The shell will check the value of the <code>TMOUT</code> variable and exit if a command is not read within the specified number of seconds after printing <code>$PS1</code> (see <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>). </li></ol> <hr> <span id="Bash-Conditional-Expressions"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Arithmetic</a>, Previous: <a href="#Interactive-Shells" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Interactive Shells</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bash-Conditional-Expressions-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.4 Bash Conditional Expressions</h3> <span id="index-expressions_002c-conditional"></span> <p>Conditional expressions are used by the <code>[[</code> compound command and the <code>test</code> and <code>[</code> builtin commands. The <code>test</code> and <code>[</code> commands determine their behavior based on the number of arguments; see the descriptions of those commands for any other command-specific actions. </p> <p>Expressions may be unary or binary, and are formed from the following primaries. Unary expressions are often used to examine the status of a file. There are string operators and numeric comparison operators as well. Bash handles several filenames specially when they are used in expressions. If the operating system on which Bash is running provides these special files, Bash will use them; otherwise it will emulate them internally with this behavior: If the <var>file</var> argument to one of the primaries is of the form <samp>/dev/fd/<var>N</var></samp>, then file descriptor <var>N</var> is checked. If the <var>file</var> argument to one of the primaries is one of <samp>/dev/stdin</samp>, <samp>/dev/stdout</samp>, or <samp>/dev/stderr</samp>, file descriptor 0, 1, or 2, respectively, is checked. </p> <p>When used with <code>[[</code>, the ‘<samp><</samp>’ and ‘<samp>></samp>’ operators sort lexicographically using the current locale. The <code>test</code> command uses ASCII ordering. </p> <p>Unless otherwise specified, primaries that operate on files follow symbolic links and operate on the target of the link, rather than the link itself. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-a <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-b <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is a block special file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-c <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is a character special file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-d <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is a directory. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-e <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-f <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is a regular file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-g <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and its set-group-id bit is set. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-h <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is a symbolic link. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-k <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and its "sticky" bit is set. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-p <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is a named pipe (FIFO). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-r <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is readable. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-s <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and has a size greater than zero. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-t <var>fd</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if file descriptor <var>fd</var> is open and refers to a terminal. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-u <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and its set-user-id bit is set. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-w <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is writable. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-x <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is executable. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-G <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is owned by the effective group id. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-L <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is a symbolic link. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-N <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and has been modified since it was last read. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-O <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is owned by the effective user id. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-S <var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file</var> exists and is a socket. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>file1</var> -ef <var>file2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file1</var> and <var>file2</var> refer to the same device and inode numbers. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>file1</var> -nt <var>file2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file1</var> is newer (according to modification date) than <var>file2</var>, or if <var>file1</var> exists and <var>file2</var> does not. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>file1</var> -ot <var>file2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>file1</var> is older than <var>file2</var>, or if <var>file2</var> exists and <var>file1</var> does not. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-o <var>optname</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if the shell option <var>optname</var> is enabled. The list of options appears in the description of the <samp>-o</samp> option to the <code>set</code> builtin (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-v <var>varname</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if the shell variable <var>varname</var> is set (has been assigned a value). </p> </dd> <dt><code>-R <var>varname</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if the shell variable <var>varname</var> is set and is a name reference. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-z <var>string</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if the length of <var>string</var> is zero. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-n <var>string</var></code></dt> <dt><code><var>string</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if the length of <var>string</var> is non-zero. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>string1</var> == <var>string2</var></code></dt> <dt><code><var>string1</var> = <var>string2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if the strings are equal. When used with the <code>[[</code> command, this performs pattern matching as described above (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>). </p> <p>‘<samp>=</samp>’ should be used with the <code>test</code> command for <small>POSIX</small> conformance. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>string1</var> != <var>string2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if the strings are not equal. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>string1</var> < <var>string2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>string1</var> sorts before <var>string2</var> lexicographically. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>string1</var> > <var>string2</var></code></dt> <dd><p>True if <var>string1</var> sorts after <var>string2</var> lexicographically. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>arg1</var> OP <var>arg2</var></code></dt> <dd><p><code>OP</code> is one of ‘<samp>-eq</samp>’, ‘<samp>-ne</samp>’, ‘<samp>-lt</samp>’, ‘<samp>-le</samp>’, ‘<samp>-gt</samp>’, or ‘<samp>-ge</samp>’. These arithmetic binary operators return true if <var>arg1</var> is equal to, not equal to, less than, less than or equal to, greater than, or greater than or equal to <var>arg2</var>, respectively. <var>Arg1</var> and <var>arg2</var> may be positive or negative integers. When used with the <code>[[</code> command, <var>Arg1</var> and <var>Arg2</var> are evaluated as arithmetic expressions (see <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a>). </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Shell-Arithmetic"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Aliases" accesskey="n" rel="next">Aliases</a>, Previous: <a href="#Bash-Conditional-Expressions" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bash Conditional Expressions</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Arithmetic-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.5 Shell Arithmetic</h3> <span id="index-arithmetic_002c-shell"></span> <span id="index-shell-arithmetic"></span> <span id="index-expressions_002c-arithmetic"></span> <span id="index-evaluation_002c-arithmetic"></span> <span id="index-arithmetic-evaluation"></span> <p>The shell allows arithmetic expressions to be evaluated, as one of the shell expansions or by using the <code>((</code> compound command, the <code>let</code> builtin, or the <samp>-i</samp> option to the <code>declare</code> builtin. </p> <p>Evaluation is done in fixed-width integers with no check for overflow, though division by 0 is trapped and flagged as an error. The operators and their precedence, associativity, and values are the same as in the C language. The following list of operators is grouped into levels of equal-precedence operators. The levels are listed in order of decreasing precedence. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code><var>id</var>++ <var>id</var>--</code></dt> <dd><p>variable post-increment and post-decrement </p> </dd> <dt><code>++<var>id</var> --<var>id</var></code></dt> <dd><p>variable pre-increment and pre-decrement </p> </dd> <dt><code>- +</code></dt> <dd><p>unary minus and plus </p> </dd> <dt><code>! ~</code></dt> <dd><p>logical and bitwise negation </p> </dd> <dt><code>**</code></dt> <dd><p>exponentiation </p> </dd> <dt><code>* / %</code></dt> <dd><p>multiplication, division, remainder </p> </dd> <dt><code>+ -</code></dt> <dd><p>addition, subtraction </p> </dd> <dt><code><< >></code></dt> <dd><p>left and right bitwise shifts </p> </dd> <dt><code><= >= < ></code></dt> <dd><p>comparison </p> </dd> <dt><code>== !=</code></dt> <dd><p>equality and inequality </p> </dd> <dt><code>&</code></dt> <dd><p>bitwise AND </p> </dd> <dt><code>^</code></dt> <dd><p>bitwise exclusive OR </p> </dd> <dt><code>|</code></dt> <dd><p>bitwise OR </p> </dd> <dt><code>&&</code></dt> <dd><p>logical AND </p> </dd> <dt><code>||</code></dt> <dd><p>logical OR </p> </dd> <dt><code>expr ? expr : expr</code></dt> <dd><p>conditional operator </p> </dd> <dt><code>= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=</code></dt> <dd><p>assignment </p> </dd> <dt><code>expr1 , expr2</code></dt> <dd><p>comma </p></dd> </dl> <p>Shell variables are allowed as operands; parameter expansion is performed before the expression is evaluated. Within an expression, shell variables may also be referenced by name without using the parameter expansion syntax. A shell variable that is null or unset evaluates to 0 when referenced by name without using the parameter expansion syntax. The value of a variable is evaluated as an arithmetic expression when it is referenced, or when a variable which has been given the <var>integer</var> attribute using ‘<samp>declare -i</samp>’ is assigned a value. A null value evaluates to 0. A shell variable need not have its <var>integer</var> attribute turned on to be used in an expression. </p> <p>Integer constants follow the C language definition, without suffixes or character constants. Constants with a leading 0 are interpreted as octal numbers. A leading ‘<samp>0x</samp>’ or ‘<samp>0X</samp>’ denotes hexadecimal. Otherwise, numbers take the form [<var>base</var><code>#</code>]<var>n</var>, where the optional <var>base</var> is a decimal number between 2 and 64 representing the arithmetic base, and <var>n</var> is a number in that base. If <var>base</var><code>#</code> is omitted, then base 10 is used. When specifying <var>n</var>, if a non-digit is required, the digits greater than 9 are represented by the lowercase letters, the uppercase letters, ‘<samp>@</samp>’, and ‘<samp>_</samp>’, in that order. If <var>base</var> is less than or equal to 36, lowercase and uppercase letters may be used interchangeably to represent numbers between 10 and 35. </p> <p>Operators are evaluated in order of precedence. Sub-expressions in parentheses are evaluated first and may override the precedence rules above. </p> <hr> <span id="Aliases"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Arrays" accesskey="n" rel="next">Arrays</a>, Previous: <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Shell Arithmetic</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Aliases-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.6 Aliases</h3> <span id="index-alias-expansion"></span> <p><var>Aliases</var> allow a string to be substituted for a word when it is used as the first word of a simple command. The shell maintains a list of aliases that may be set and unset with the <code>alias</code> and <code>unalias</code> builtin commands. </p> <p>The first word of each simple command, if unquoted, is checked to see if it has an alias. If so, that word is replaced by the text of the alias. The characters ‘<samp>/</samp>’, ‘<samp>$</samp>’, ‘<samp>`</samp>’, ‘<samp>=</samp>’ and any of the shell metacharacters or quoting characters listed above may not appear in an alias name. The replacement text may contain any valid shell input, including shell metacharacters. The first word of the replacement text is tested for aliases, but a word that is identical to an alias being expanded is not expanded a second time. This means that one may alias <code>ls</code> to <code>"ls -F"</code>, for instance, and Bash does not try to recursively expand the replacement text. If the last character of the alias value is a <var>blank</var>, then the next command word following the alias is also checked for alias expansion. </p> <p>Aliases are created and listed with the <code>alias</code> command, and removed with the <code>unalias</code> command. </p> <p>There is no mechanism for using arguments in the replacement text, as in <code>csh</code>. If arguments are needed, a shell function should be used (see <a href="#Shell-Functions">Shell Functions</a>). </p> <p>Aliases are not expanded when the shell is not interactive, unless the <code>expand_aliases</code> shell option is set using <code>shopt</code> (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>). </p> <p>The rules concerning the definition and use of aliases are somewhat confusing. Bash always reads at least one complete line of input, and all lines that make up a compound command, before executing any of the commands on that line or the compound command. Aliases are expanded when a command is read, not when it is executed. Therefore, an alias definition appearing on the same line as another command does not take effect until the next line of input is read. The commands following the alias definition on that line are not affected by the new alias. This behavior is also an issue when functions are executed. Aliases are expanded when a function definition is read, not when the function is executed, because a function definition is itself a command. As a consequence, aliases defined in a function are not available until after that function is executed. To be safe, always put alias definitions on a separate line, and do not use <code>alias</code> in compound commands. </p> <p>For almost every purpose, shell functions are preferred over aliases. </p> <hr> <span id="Arrays"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#The-Directory-Stack" accesskey="n" rel="next">The Directory Stack</a>, Previous: <a href="#Aliases" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Aliases</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Arrays-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.7 Arrays</h3> <span id="index-arrays"></span> <p>Bash provides one-dimensional indexed and associative array variables. Any variable may be used as an indexed array; the <code>declare</code> builtin will explicitly declare an array. There is no maximum limit on the size of an array, nor any requirement that members be indexed or assigned contiguously. Indexed arrays are referenced using integers (including arithmetic expressions (see <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a>)) and are zero-based; associative arrays use arbitrary strings. Unless otherwise noted, indexed array indices must be non-negative integers. </p> <p>An indexed array is created automatically if any variable is assigned to using the syntax </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><var>name</var>[<var>subscript</var>]=<var>value</var> </pre></div> <p>The <var>subscript</var> is treated as an arithmetic expression that must evaluate to a number. To explicitly declare an array, use </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">declare -a <var>name</var> </pre></div> <p>The syntax </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">declare -a <var>name</var>[<var>subscript</var>] </pre></div> <p>is also accepted; the <var>subscript</var> is ignored. </p> <p>Associative arrays are created using </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">declare -A <var>name</var> </pre></div> <p>Attributes may be specified for an array variable using the <code>declare</code> and <code>readonly</code> builtins. Each attribute applies to all members of an array. </p> <p>Arrays are assigned to using compound assignments of the form </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example"><var>name</var>=(<var>value1</var> <var>value2</var> … ) </pre></div> <p>where each <var>value</var> may be of the form <code>[<var>subscript</var>]=</code><var>string</var>. Indexed array assignments do not require anything but <var>string</var>. When assigning to indexed arrays, if the optional subscript is supplied, that index is assigned to; otherwise the index of the element assigned is the last index assigned to by the statement plus one. Indexing starts at zero. </p> <p>Each <var>value</var> in the list undergoes all the shell expansions described above (see <a href="#Shell-Expansions">Shell Expansions</a>). </p> <p>When assigning to an associative array, the words in a compound assignment may be either assignment statements, for which the subscript is required, or a list of words that is interpreted as a sequence of alternating keys and values: <var>name</var>=(<var>key1</var> <var>value1</var> <var>key2</var> <var>value2</var> … ). These are treated identically to <var>name</var>=( [<var>key1</var>]=<var>value1</var> [<var>key2</var>]=<var>value2</var> … ). The first word in the list determines how the remaining words are interpreted; all assignments in a list must be of the same type. When using key/value pairs, the keys may not be missing or empty; a final missing value is treated like the empty string. </p> <p>This syntax is also accepted by the <code>declare</code> builtin. Individual array elements may be assigned to using the <code><var>name</var>[<var>subscript</var>]=<var>value</var></code> syntax introduced above. </p> <p>When assigning to an indexed array, if <var>name</var> is subscripted by a negative number, that number is interpreted as relative to one greater than the maximum index of <var>name</var>, so negative indices count back from the end of the array, and an index of -1 references the last element. </p> <p>Any element of an array may be referenced using <code>${<var>name</var>[<var>subscript</var>]}</code>. The braces are required to avoid conflicts with the shell’s filename expansion operators. If the <var>subscript</var> is ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the word expands to all members of the array <var>name</var>. These subscripts differ only when the word appears within double quotes. If the word is double-quoted, <code>${<var>name</var>[*]}</code> expands to a single word with the value of each array member separated by the first character of the <code>IFS</code> variable, and <code>${<var>name</var>[@]}</code> expands each element of <var>name</var> to a separate word. When there are no array members, <code>${<var>name</var>[@]}</code> expands to nothing. If the double-quoted expansion occurs within a word, the expansion of the first parameter is joined with the beginning part of the original word, and the expansion of the last parameter is joined with the last part of the original word. This is analogous to the expansion of the special parameters ‘<samp>@</samp>’ and ‘<samp>*</samp>’. <code>${#<var>name</var>[<var>subscript</var>]}</code> expands to the length of <code>${<var>name</var>[<var>subscript</var>]}</code>. If <var>subscript</var> is ‘<samp>@</samp>’ or ‘<samp>*</samp>’, the expansion is the number of elements in the array. If the <var>subscript</var> used to reference an element of an indexed array evaluates to a number less than zero, it is interpreted as relative to one greater than the maximum index of the array, so negative indices count back from the end of the array, and an index of -1 refers to the last element. </p> <p>Referencing an array variable without a subscript is equivalent to referencing with a subscript of 0. Any reference to a variable using a valid subscript is legal, and <code>bash</code> will create an array if necessary. </p> <p>An array variable is considered set if a subscript has been assigned a value. The null string is a valid value. </p> <p>It is possible to obtain the keys (indices) of an array as well as the values. ${!<var>name</var>[@]} and ${!<var>name</var>[*]} expand to the indices assigned in array variable <var>name</var>. The treatment when in double quotes is similar to the expansion of the special parameters ‘<samp>@</samp>’ and ‘<samp>*</samp>’ within double quotes. </p> <p>The <code>unset</code> builtin is used to destroy arrays. <code>unset <var>name</var>[<var>subscript</var>]</code> destroys the array element at index <var>subscript</var>. Negative subscripts to indexed arrays are interpreted as described above. Unsetting the last element of an array variable does not unset the variable. <code>unset <var>name</var></code>, where <var>name</var> is an array, removes the entire array. A subscript of ‘<samp>*</samp>’ or ‘<samp>@</samp>’ also removes the entire array. </p> <p>When using a variable name with a subscript as an argument to a command, such as with <code>unset</code>, without using the word expansion syntax described above, the argument is subject to the shell’s filename expansion. If filename expansion is not desired, the argument should be quoted. </p> <p>The <code>declare</code>, <code>local</code>, and <code>readonly</code> builtins each accept a <samp>-a</samp> option to specify an indexed array and a <samp>-A</samp> option to specify an associative array. If both options are supplied, <samp>-A</samp> takes precedence. The <code>read</code> builtin accepts a <samp>-a</samp> option to assign a list of words read from the standard input to an array, and can read values from the standard input into individual array elements. The <code>set</code> and <code>declare</code> builtins display array values in a way that allows them to be reused as input. </p> <hr> <span id="The-Directory-Stack"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt" accesskey="n" rel="next">Controlling the Prompt</a>, Previous: <a href="#Arrays" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Arrays</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="The-Directory-Stack-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.8 The Directory Stack</h3> <span id="index-directory-stack"></span> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Directory-Stack-Builtins" accesskey="1">Directory Stack Builtins</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Bash builtin commands to manipulate the directory stack. </td></tr> </table> <p>The directory stack is a list of recently-visited directories. The <code>pushd</code> builtin adds directories to the stack as it changes the current directory, and the <code>popd</code> builtin removes specified directories from the stack and changes the current directory to the directory removed. The <code>dirs</code> builtin displays the contents of the directory stack. The current directory is always the "top" of the directory stack. </p> <p>The contents of the directory stack are also visible as the value of the <code>DIRSTACK</code> shell variable. </p> <hr> <span id="Directory-Stack-Builtins"></span><div class="header"> <p> Up: <a href="#The-Directory-Stack" accesskey="u" rel="up">The Directory Stack</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Directory-Stack-Builtins-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">6.8.1 Directory Stack Builtins</h4> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>dirs</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-dirs"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">dirs [-clpv] [+<var>N</var> | -<var>N</var>] </pre></div> <p>Display the list of currently remembered directories. Directories are added to the list with the <code>pushd</code> command; the <code>popd</code> command removes directories from the list. The current directory is always the first directory in the stack. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-c</code></dt> <dd><p>Clears the directory stack by deleting all of the elements. </p></dd> <dt><code>-l</code></dt> <dd><p>Produces a listing using full pathnames; the default listing format uses a tilde to denote the home directory. </p></dd> <dt><code>-p</code></dt> <dd><p>Causes <code>dirs</code> to print the directory stack with one entry per line. </p></dd> <dt><code>-v</code></dt> <dd><p>Causes <code>dirs</code> to print the directory stack with one entry per line, prefixing each entry with its index in the stack. </p></dd> <dt><code>+<var>N</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Displays the <var>N</var>th directory (counting from the left of the list printed by <code>dirs</code> when invoked without options), starting with zero. </p></dd> <dt><code>-<var>N</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Displays the <var>N</var>th directory (counting from the right of the list printed by <code>dirs</code> when invoked without options), starting with zero. </p></dd> </dl> </dd> <dt><code>popd</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-popd"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">popd [-n] [+<var>N</var> | -<var>N</var>] </pre></div> <p>When no arguments are given, <code>popd</code> removes the top directory from the stack and performs a <code>cd</code> to the new top directory. The elements are numbered from 0 starting at the first directory listed with <code>dirs</code>; that is, <code>popd</code> is equivalent to <code>popd +0</code>. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-n</code></dt> <dd><p>Suppresses the normal change of directory when removing directories from the stack, so that only the stack is manipulated. </p></dd> <dt><code>+<var>N</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Removes the <var>N</var>th directory (counting from the left of the list printed by <code>dirs</code>), starting with zero. </p></dd> <dt><code>-<var>N</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Removes the <var>N</var>th directory (counting from the right of the list printed by <code>dirs</code>), starting with zero. </p></dd> </dl> <span id="index-pushd"></span> </dd> <dt><code>pushd</code></dt> <dd><div class="example"> <pre class="example">pushd [-n] [<var>+N</var> | <var>-N</var> | <var>dir</var>] </pre></div> <p>Save the current directory on the top of the directory stack and then <code>cd</code> to <var>dir</var>. With no arguments, <code>pushd</code> exchanges the top two directories and makes the new top the current directory. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-n</code></dt> <dd><p>Suppresses the normal change of directory when rotating or adding directories to the stack, so that only the stack is manipulated. </p></dd> <dt><code>+<var>N</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Brings the <var>N</var>th directory (counting from the left of the list printed by <code>dirs</code>, starting with zero) to the top of the list by rotating the stack. </p></dd> <dt><code>-<var>N</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Brings the <var>N</var>th directory (counting from the right of the list printed by <code>dirs</code>, starting with zero) to the top of the list by rotating the stack. </p></dd> <dt><code><var>dir</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Makes <var>dir</var> be the top of the stack, making it the new current directory as if it had been supplied as an argument to the <code>cd</code> builtin. </p></dd> </dl> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Controlling-the-Prompt"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#The-Restricted-Shell" accesskey="n" rel="next">The Restricted Shell</a>, Previous: <a href="#The-Directory-Stack" accesskey="p" rel="prev">The Directory Stack</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Controlling-the-Prompt-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.9 Controlling the Prompt</h3> <span id="index-prompting"></span> <p>Bash examines the value of the array variable <code>PROMPT_COMMANDS</code> just before printing each primary prompt. If any elements in <code>PROMPT_COMMANDS</code> are set and non-null, Bash executes each value, in numeric order, just as if it had been typed on the command line. </p> <p>In addition, the following table describes the special characters which can appear in the prompt variables <code>PS0</code>, <code>PS1</code>, <code>PS2</code>, and <code>PS4</code>: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>\a</code></dt> <dd><p>A bell character. </p></dd> <dt><code>\d</code></dt> <dd><p>The date, in "Weekday Month Date" format (e.g., "Tue May 26"). </p></dd> <dt><code>\D{<var>format</var>}</code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>format</var> is passed to <code>strftime</code>(3) and the result is inserted into the prompt string; an empty <var>format</var> results in a locale-specific time representation. The braces are required. </p></dd> <dt><code>\e</code></dt> <dd><p>An escape character. </p></dd> <dt><code>\h</code></dt> <dd><p>The hostname, up to the first ‘.’. </p></dd> <dt><code>\H</code></dt> <dd><p>The hostname. </p></dd> <dt><code>\j</code></dt> <dd><p>The number of jobs currently managed by the shell. </p></dd> <dt><code>\l</code></dt> <dd><p>The basename of the shell’s terminal device name. </p></dd> <dt><code>\n</code></dt> <dd><p>A newline. </p></dd> <dt><code>\r</code></dt> <dd><p>A carriage return. </p></dd> <dt><code>\s</code></dt> <dd><p>The name of the shell, the basename of <code>$0</code> (the portion following the final slash). </p></dd> <dt><code>\t</code></dt> <dd><p>The time, in 24-hour HH:MM:SS format. </p></dd> <dt><code>\T</code></dt> <dd><p>The time, in 12-hour HH:MM:SS format. </p></dd> <dt><code>\@</code></dt> <dd><p>The time, in 12-hour am/pm format. </p></dd> <dt><code>\A</code></dt> <dd><p>The time, in 24-hour HH:MM format. </p></dd> <dt><code>\u</code></dt> <dd><p>The username of the current user. </p></dd> <dt><code>\v</code></dt> <dd><p>The version of Bash (e.g., 2.00) </p></dd> <dt><code>\V</code></dt> <dd><p>The release of Bash, version + patchlevel (e.g., 2.00.0) </p></dd> <dt><code>\w</code></dt> <dd><p>The current working directory, with <code>$HOME</code> abbreviated with a tilde (uses the <code>$PROMPT_DIRTRIM</code> variable). </p></dd> <dt><code>\W</code></dt> <dd><p>The basename of <code>$PWD</code>, with <code>$HOME</code> abbreviated with a tilde. </p></dd> <dt><code>\!</code></dt> <dd><p>The history number of this command. </p></dd> <dt><code>\#</code></dt> <dd><p>The command number of this command. </p></dd> <dt><code>\$</code></dt> <dd><p>If the effective uid is 0, <code>#</code>, otherwise <code>$</code>. </p></dd> <dt><code>\<var>nnn</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The character whose ASCII code is the octal value <var>nnn</var>. </p></dd> <dt><code>\\</code></dt> <dd><p>A backslash. </p></dd> <dt><code>\[</code></dt> <dd><p>Begin a sequence of non-printing characters. This could be used to embed a terminal control sequence into the prompt. </p></dd> <dt><code>\]</code></dt> <dd><p>End a sequence of non-printing characters. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The command number and the history number are usually different: the history number of a command is its position in the history list, which may include commands restored from the history file (see <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a>), while the command number is the position in the sequence of commands executed during the current shell session. </p> <p>After the string is decoded, it is expanded via parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal, subject to the value of the <code>promptvars</code> shell option (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>). This can have unwanted side effects if escaped portions of the string appear within command substitution or contain characters special to word expansion. </p> <hr> <span id="The-Restricted-Shell"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode" accesskey="n" rel="next">Bash POSIX Mode</a>, Previous: <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Controlling the Prompt</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="The-Restricted-Shell-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.10 The Restricted Shell</h3> <span id="index-restricted-shell"></span> <p>If Bash is started with the name <code>rbash</code>, or the <samp>--restricted</samp> or <samp>-r</samp> option is supplied at invocation, the shell becomes restricted. A restricted shell is used to set up an environment more controlled than the standard shell. A restricted shell behaves identically to <code>bash</code> with the exception that the following are disallowed or not performed: </p> <ul> <li> Changing directories with the <code>cd</code> builtin. </li><li> Setting or unsetting the values of the <code>SHELL</code>, <code>PATH</code>, <code>HISTFILE</code>, <code>ENV</code>, or <code>BASH_ENV</code> variables. </li><li> Specifying command names containing slashes. </li><li> Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the <code>.</code> builtin command. </li><li> Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the <code>history</code> builtin command. </li><li> Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the <samp>-p</samp> option to the <code>hash</code> builtin command. </li><li> Importing function definitions from the shell environment at startup. </li><li> Parsing the value of <code>SHELLOPTS</code> from the shell environment at startup. </li><li> Redirecting output using the ‘<samp>></samp>’, ‘<samp>>|</samp>’, ‘<samp><></samp>’, ‘<samp>>&</samp>’, ‘<samp>&></samp>’, and ‘<samp>>></samp>’ redirection operators. </li><li> Using the <code>exec</code> builtin to replace the shell with another command. </li><li> Adding or deleting builtin commands with the <samp>-f</samp> and <samp>-d</samp> options to the <code>enable</code> builtin. </li><li> Using the <code>enable</code> builtin command to enable disabled shell builtins. </li><li> Specifying the <samp>-p</samp> option to the <code>command</code> builtin. </li><li> Turning off restricted mode with ‘<samp>set +r</samp>’ or ‘<samp>set +o restricted</samp>’. </li></ul> <p>These restrictions are enforced after any startup files are read. </p> <p>When a command that is found to be a shell script is executed (see <a href="#Shell-Scripts">Shell Scripts</a>), <code>rbash</code> turns off any restrictions in the shell spawned to execute the script. </p> <p>The restricted shell mode is only one component of a useful restricted environment. It should be accompanied by setting <code>PATH</code> to a value that allows execution of only a few verified commands (commands that allow shell escapes are particularly vulnerable), leaving the user in a non-writable directory other than his home directory after login, not allowing the restricted shell to execute shell scripts, and cleaning the environment of variables that cause some commands to modify their behavior (e.g., <code>VISUAL</code> or <code>PAGER</code>). </p> <p>Modern systems provide more secure ways to implement a restricted environment, such as <code>jails</code>, <code>zones</code>, or <code>containers</code>. </p> <hr> <span id="Bash-POSIX-Mode"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Shell-Compatibility-Mode" accesskey="n" rel="next">Shell Compatibility Mode</a>, Previous: <a href="#The-Restricted-Shell" accesskey="p" rel="prev">The Restricted Shell</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bash-POSIX-Mode-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.11 Bash POSIX Mode</h3> <span id="index-POSIX-Mode"></span> <p>Starting Bash with the <samp>--posix</samp> command-line option or executing ‘<samp>set -o posix</samp>’ while Bash is running will cause Bash to conform more closely to the <small>POSIX</small> standard by changing the behavior to match that specified by <small>POSIX</small> in areas where the Bash default differs. </p> <p>When invoked as <code>sh</code>, Bash enters <small>POSIX</small> mode after reading the startup files. </p> <p>The following list is what’s changed when ‘<small>POSIX</small> mode’ is in effect: </p> <ol> <li> Bash ensures that the <code>POSIXLY_CORRECT</code> variable is set. </li><li> When a command in the hash table no longer exists, Bash will re-search <code>$PATH</code> to find the new location. This is also available with ‘<samp>shopt -s checkhash</samp>’. </li><li> Bash will not insert a command without the execute bit set into the command hash table, even if it returns it as a (last-ditch) result from a <code>$PATH</code> search. </li><li> The message printed by the job control code and builtins when a job exits with a non-zero status is ‘Done(status)’. </li><li> The message printed by the job control code and builtins when a job is stopped is ‘Stopped(<var>signame</var>)’, where <var>signame</var> is, for example, <code>SIGTSTP</code>. </li><li> Alias expansion is always enabled, even in non-interactive shells. </li><li> Reserved words appearing in a context where reserved words are recognized do not undergo alias expansion. </li><li> The <small>POSIX</small> <code>PS1</code> and <code>PS2</code> expansions of ‘<samp>!</samp>’ to the history number and ‘<samp>!!</samp>’ to ‘<samp>!</samp>’ are enabled, and parameter expansion is performed on the values of <code>PS1</code> and <code>PS2</code> regardless of the setting of the <code>promptvars</code> option. </li><li> The <small>POSIX</small> startup files are executed (<code>$ENV</code>) rather than the normal Bash files. </li><li> Tilde expansion is only performed on assignments preceding a command name, rather than on all assignment statements on the line. </li><li> The default history file is <samp>~/.sh_history</samp> (this is the default value of <code>$HISTFILE</code>). </li><li> Redirection operators do not perform filename expansion on the word in the redirection unless the shell is interactive. </li><li> Redirection operators do not perform word splitting on the word in the redirection. </li><li> Function names must be valid shell <code>name</code>s. That is, they may not contain characters other than letters, digits, and underscores, and may not start with a digit. Declaring a function with an invalid name causes a fatal syntax error in non-interactive shells. </li><li> Function names may not be the same as one of the <small>POSIX</small> special builtins. </li><li> <small>POSIX</small> special builtins are found before shell functions during command lookup. </li><li> When printing shell function definitions (e.g., by <code>type</code>), Bash does not print the <code>function</code> keyword. </li><li> Literal tildes that appear as the first character in elements of the <code>PATH</code> variable are not expanded as described above under <a href="#Tilde-Expansion">Tilde Expansion</a>. </li><li> The <code>time</code> reserved word may be used by itself as a command. When used in this way, it displays timing statistics for the shell and its completed children. The <code>TIMEFORMAT</code> variable controls the format of the timing information. </li><li> When parsing and expanding a ${…} expansion that appears within double quotes, single quotes are no longer special and cannot be used to quote a closing brace or other special character, unless the operator is one of those defined to perform pattern removal. In this case, they do not have to appear as matched pairs. </li><li> The parser does not recognize <code>time</code> as a reserved word if the next token begins with a ‘<samp>-</samp>’. </li><li> The ‘<samp>!</samp>’ character does not introduce history expansion within a double-quoted string, even if the <code>histexpand</code> option is enabled. </li><li> If a <small>POSIX</small> special builtin returns an error status, a non-interactive shell exits. The fatal errors are those listed in the <small>POSIX</small> standard, and include things like passing incorrect options, redirection errors, variable assignment errors for assignments preceding the command name, and so on. </li><li> A non-interactive shell exits with an error status if a variable assignment error occurs when no command name follows the assignment statements. A variable assignment error occurs, for example, when trying to assign a value to a readonly variable. </li><li> A non-interactive shell exits with an error status if a variable assignment error occurs in an assignment statement preceding a special builtin, but not with any other simple command. </li><li> A non-interactive shell exits with an error status if the iteration variable in a <code>for</code> statement or the selection variable in a <code>select</code> statement is a readonly variable. </li><li> Non-interactive shells exit if <var>filename</var> in <code>.</code> <var>filename</var> is not found. </li><li> Non-interactive shells exit if a syntax error in an arithmetic expansion results in an invalid expression. </li><li> Non-interactive shells exit if a parameter expansion error occurs. </li><li> Non-interactive shells exit if there is a syntax error in a script read with the <code>.</code> or <code>source</code> builtins, or in a string processed by the <code>eval</code> builtin. </li><li> While variable indirection is available, it may not be applied to the ‘<samp>#</samp>’ and ‘<samp>?</samp>’ special parameters. </li><li> When expanding the ‘<samp>*</samp>’ special parameter in a pattern context where the expansion is double-quoted does not treat the <code>$*</code> as if it were double-quoted. </li><li> Assignment statements preceding <small>POSIX</small> special builtins persist in the shell environment after the builtin completes. </li><li> The <code>command</code> builtin does not prevent builtins that take assignment statements as arguments from expanding them as assignment statements; when not in <small>POSIX</small> mode, assignment builtins lose their assignment statement expansion properties when preceded by <code>command</code>. </li><li> The <code>bg</code> builtin uses the required format to describe each job placed in the background, which does not include an indication of whether the job is the current or previous job. </li><li> The output of ‘<samp>kill -l</samp>’ prints all the signal names on a single line, separated by spaces, without the ‘<samp>SIG</samp>’ prefix. </li><li> The <code>kill</code> builtin does not accept signal names with a ‘<samp>SIG</samp>’ prefix. </li><li> The <code>export</code> and <code>readonly</code> builtin commands display their output in the format required by <small>POSIX</small>. </li><li> The <code>trap</code> builtin displays signal names without the leading <code>SIG</code>. </li><li> The <code>trap</code> builtin doesn’t check the first argument for a possible signal specification and revert the signal handling to the original disposition if it is, unless that argument consists solely of digits and is a valid signal number. If users want to reset the handler for a given signal to the original disposition, they should use ‘<samp>-</samp>’ as the first argument. </li><li> <code>trap -p</code> displays signals whose dispositions are set to SIG_DFL and those that were ignored when the shell started. </li><li> The <code>.</code> and <code>source</code> builtins do not search the current directory for the filename argument if it is not found by searching <code>PATH</code>. </li><li> Enabling <small>POSIX</small> mode has the effect of setting the <code>inherit_errexit</code> option, so subshells spawned to execute command substitutions inherit the value of the <samp>-e</samp> option from the parent shell. When the <code>inherit_errexit</code> option is not enabled, Bash clears the <samp>-e</samp> option in such subshells. </li><li> Enabling <small>POSIX</small> mode has the effect of setting the <code>shift_verbose</code> option, so numeric arguments to <code>shift</code> that exceed the number of positional parameters will result in an error message. </li><li> When the <code>alias</code> builtin displays alias definitions, it does not display them with a leading ‘<samp>alias </samp>’ unless the <samp>-p</samp> option is supplied. </li><li> When the <code>set</code> builtin is invoked without options, it does not display shell function names and definitions. </li><li> When the <code>set</code> builtin is invoked without options, it displays variable values without quotes, unless they contain shell metacharacters, even if the result contains nonprinting characters. </li><li> When the <code>cd</code> builtin is invoked in <var>logical</var> mode, and the pathname constructed from <code>$PWD</code> and the directory name supplied as an argument does not refer to an existing directory, <code>cd</code> will fail instead of falling back to <var>physical</var> mode. </li><li> When the <code>cd</code> builtin cannot change a directory because the length of the pathname constructed from <code>$PWD</code> and the directory name supplied as an argument exceeds <var>PATH_MAX</var> when all symbolic links are expanded, <code>cd</code> will fail instead of attempting to use only the supplied directory name. </li><li> The <code>pwd</code> builtin verifies that the value it prints is the same as the current directory, even if it is not asked to check the file system with the <samp>-P</samp> option. </li><li> When listing the history, the <code>fc</code> builtin does not include an indication of whether or not a history entry has been modified. </li><li> The default editor used by <code>fc</code> is <code>ed</code>. </li><li> The <code>type</code> and <code>command</code> builtins will not report a non-executable file as having been found, though the shell will attempt to execute such a file if it is the only so-named file found in <code>$PATH</code>. </li><li> The <code>vi</code> editing mode will invoke the <code>vi</code> editor directly when the ‘<samp>v</samp>’ command is run, instead of checking <code>$VISUAL</code> and <code>$EDITOR</code>. </li><li> When the <code>xpg_echo</code> option is enabled, Bash does not attempt to interpret any arguments to <code>echo</code> as options. Each argument is displayed, after escape characters are converted. </li><li> The <code>ulimit</code> builtin uses a block size of 512 bytes for the <samp>-c</samp> and <samp>-f</samp> options. </li><li> The arrival of <code>SIGCHLD</code> when a trap is set on <code>SIGCHLD</code> does not interrupt the <code>wait</code> builtin and cause it to return immediately. The trap command is run once for each child that exits. </li><li> The <code>read</code> builtin may be interrupted by a signal for which a trap has been set. If Bash receives a trapped signal while executing <code>read</code>, the trap handler executes and <code>read</code> returns an exit status greater than 128. </li><li> Bash removes an exited background process’s status from the list of such statuses after the <code>wait</code> builtin is used to obtain it. </li></ol> <p>There is other <small>POSIX</small> behavior that Bash does not implement by default even when in <small>POSIX</small> mode. Specifically: </p> <ol> <li> The <code>fc</code> builtin checks <code>$EDITOR</code> as a program to edit history entries if <code>FCEDIT</code> is unset, rather than defaulting directly to <code>ed</code>. <code>fc</code> uses <code>ed</code> if <code>EDITOR</code> is unset. </li><li> As noted above, Bash requires the <code>xpg_echo</code> option to be enabled for the <code>echo</code> builtin to be fully conformant. </li></ol> <p>Bash can be configured to be <small>POSIX</small>-conformant by default, by specifying the <samp>--enable-strict-posix-default</samp> to <code>configure</code> when building (see <a href="#Optional-Features">Optional Features</a>). </p> <hr> <span id="Shell-Compatibility-Mode"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bash POSIX Mode</a>, Up: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bash Features</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Shell-Compatibility-Mode-1"></span><h3 class="section">6.12 Shell Compatibility Mode</h3> <span id="index-Compatibility-Level"></span> <span id="index-Compatibility-Mode"></span> <p>Bash-4.0 introduced the concept of a ‘shell compatibility level’, specified as a set of options to the shopt builtin (<code>compat31</code>, <code>compat32</code>, <code>compat40</code>, <code>compat41</code>, and so on). There is only one current compatibility level – each option is mutually exclusive. The compatibility level is intended to allow users to select behavior from previous versions that is incompatible with newer versions while they migrate scripts to use current features and behavior. It’s intended to be a temporary solution. </p> <p>This section does not mention behavior that is standard for a particular version (e.g., setting <code>compat32</code> means that quoting the rhs of the regexp matching operator quotes special regexp characters in the word, which is default behavior in bash-3.2 and above). </p> <p>If a user enables, say, <code>compat32</code>, it may affect the behavior of other compatibility levels up to and including the current compatibility level. The idea is that each compatibility level controls behavior that changed in that version of Bash, but that behavior may have been present in earlier versions. For instance, the change to use locale-based comparisons with the <code>[[</code> command came in bash-4.1, and earlier versions used ASCII-based comparisons, so enabling <code>compat32</code> will enable ASCII-based comparisons as well. That granularity may not be sufficient for all uses, and as a result users should employ compatibility levels carefully. Read the documentation for a particular feature to find out the current behavior. </p> <p>Bash-4.3 introduced a new shell variable: <code>BASH_COMPAT</code>. The value assigned to this variable (a decimal version number like 4.2, or an integer corresponding to the <code>compat</code><var>NN</var> option, like 42) determines the compatibility level. </p> <p>Starting with bash-4.4, Bash has begun deprecating older compatibility levels. Eventually, the options will be removed in favor of <code>BASH_COMPAT</code>. </p> <p>Bash-5.0 is the final version for which there will be an individual shopt option for the previous version. Users should use <code>BASH_COMPAT</code> on bash-5.0 and later versions. </p> <p>The following table describes the behavior changes controlled by each compatibility level setting. The <code>compat</code><var>NN</var> tag is used as shorthand for setting the compatibility level to <var>NN</var> using one of the following mechanisms. For versions prior to bash-5.0, the compatibility level may be set using the corresponding <code>compat</code><var>NN</var> shopt option. For bash-4.3 and later versions, the <code>BASH_COMPAT</code> variable is preferred, and it is required for bash-5.1 and later versions. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>compat31</code></dt> <dd><ul> <li> quoting the rhs of the <code>[[</code> command’s regexp matching operator (=~) has no special effect </li></ul> </dd> <dt><code>compat32</code></dt> <dd><ul> <li> interrupting a command list such as "a ; b ; c" causes the execution of the next command in the list (in bash-4.0 and later versions, the shell acts as if it received the interrupt, so interrupting one command in a list aborts the execution of the entire list) </li></ul> </dd> <dt><code>compat40</code></dt> <dd><ul> <li> the ‘<samp><</samp>’ and ‘<samp>></samp>’ operators to the <code>[[</code> command do not consider the current locale when comparing strings; they use ASCII ordering. Bash versions prior to bash-4.1 use ASCII collation and strcmp(3); bash-4.1 and later use the current locale’s collation sequence and strcoll(3). </li></ul> </dd> <dt><code>compat41</code></dt> <dd><ul> <li> in posix mode, <code>time</code> may be followed by options and still be recognized as a reserved word (this is <small>POSIX</small> interpretation 267) </li><li> in posix mode, the parser requires that an even number of single quotes occur in the <var>word</var> portion of a double-quoted ${…} parameter expansion and treats them specially, so that characters within the single quotes are considered quoted (this is <small>POSIX</small> interpretation 221) </li></ul> </dd> <dt><code>compat42</code></dt> <dd><ul> <li> the replacement string in double-quoted pattern substitution does not undergo quote removal, as it does in versions after bash-4.2 </li><li> in posix mode, single quotes are considered special when expanding the <var>word</var> portion of a double-quoted ${…} parameter expansion and can be used to quote a closing brace or other special character (this is part of <small>POSIX</small> interpretation 221); in later versions, single quotes are not special within double-quoted word expansions </li></ul> </dd> <dt><code>compat43</code></dt> <dd><ul> <li> the shell does not print a warning message if an attempt is made to use a quoted compound assignment as an argument to declare (declare -a foo=’(1 2)’). Later versions warn that this usage is deprecated </li><li> word expansion errors are considered non-fatal errors that cause the current command to fail, even in posix mode (the default behavior is to make them fatal errors that cause the shell to exit) </li><li> when executing a shell function, the loop state (while/until/etc.) is not reset, so <code>break</code> or <code>continue</code> in that function will break or continue loops in the calling context. Bash-4.4 and later reset the loop state to prevent this </li></ul> </dd> <dt><code>compat44</code></dt> <dd><ul> <li> the shell sets up the values used by <code>BASH_ARGV</code> and <code>BASH_ARGC</code> so they can expand to the shell’s positional parameters even if extended debugging mode is not enabled </li><li> a subshell inherits loops from its parent context, so <code>break</code> or <code>continue</code> will cause the subshell to exit. Bash-5.0 and later reset the loop state to prevent the exit </li><li> variable assignments preceding builtins like <code>export</code> and <code>readonly</code> that set attributes continue to affect variables with the same name in the calling environment even if the shell is not in posix mode </li></ul> </dd> <dt><code>compat50 (set using BASH_COMPAT)</code></dt> <dd><ul> <li> Bash-5.1 changed the way <code>$RANDOM</code> is generated to introduce slightly more randomness. If the shell compatibility level is set to 50 or lower, it reverts to the method from bash-5.0 and previous versions, so seeding the random number generator by assigning a value to <code>RANDOM</code> will produce the same sequence as in bash-5.0 </li><li> If the command hash table is empty, Bash versions prior to bash-5.1 printed an informational message to that effect, even when producing output that can be reused as input. Bash-5.1 suppresses that message when the <samp>-l</samp> option is supplied. </li></ul> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Job-Control"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="n" rel="next">Command Line Editing</a>, Previous: <a href="#Bash-Features" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bash Features</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Job-Control-1"></span><h2 class="chapter">7 Job Control</h2> <p>This chapter discusses what job control is, how it works, and how Bash allows you to access its facilities. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Job-Control-Basics" accesskey="1">Job Control Basics</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How job control works. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Job-Control-Builtins" accesskey="2">Job Control Builtins</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Bash builtin commands used to interact with job control. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Job-Control-Variables" accesskey="3">Job Control Variables</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Variables Bash uses to customize job control. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Job-Control-Basics"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Job-Control-Builtins" accesskey="n" rel="next">Job Control Builtins</a>, Up: <a href="#Job-Control" accesskey="u" rel="up">Job Control</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Job-Control-Basics-1"></span><h3 class="section">7.1 Job Control Basics</h3> <span id="index-job-control-1"></span> <span id="index-foreground"></span> <span id="index-background"></span> <span id="index-suspending-jobs"></span> <p>Job control refers to the ability to selectively stop (suspend) the execution of processes and continue (resume) their execution at a later point. A user typically employs this facility via an interactive interface supplied jointly by the operating system kernel’s terminal driver and Bash. </p> <p>The shell associates a <var>job</var> with each pipeline. It keeps a table of currently executing jobs, which may be listed with the <code>jobs</code> command. When Bash starts a job asynchronously, it prints a line that looks like: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">[1] 25647 </pre></div> <p>indicating that this job is job number 1 and that the process <small>ID</small> of the last process in the pipeline associated with this job is 25647. All of the processes in a single pipeline are members of the same job. Bash uses the <var>job</var> abstraction as the basis for job control. </p> <p>To facilitate the implementation of the user interface to job control, the operating system maintains the notion of a current terminal process group <small>ID</small>. Members of this process group (processes whose process group <small>ID</small> is equal to the current terminal process group <small>ID</small>) receive keyboard-generated signals such as <code>SIGINT</code>. These processes are said to be in the foreground. Background processes are those whose process group <small>ID</small> differs from the terminal’s; such processes are immune to keyboard-generated signals. Only foreground processes are allowed to read from or, if the user so specifies with <code>stty tostop</code>, write to the terminal. Background processes which attempt to read from (write to when <code>stty tostop</code> is in effect) the terminal are sent a <code>SIGTTIN</code> (<code>SIGTTOU</code>) signal by the kernel’s terminal driver, which, unless caught, suspends the process. </p> <p>If the operating system on which Bash is running supports job control, Bash contains facilities to use it. Typing the <var>suspend</var> character (typically ‘<samp>^Z</samp>’, Control-Z) while a process is running causes that process to be stopped and returns control to Bash. Typing the <var>delayed suspend</var> character (typically ‘<samp>^Y</samp>’, Control-Y) causes the process to be stopped when it attempts to read input from the terminal, and control to be returned to Bash. The user then manipulates the state of this job, using the <code>bg</code> command to continue it in the background, the <code>fg</code> command to continue it in the foreground, or the <code>kill</code> command to kill it. A ‘<samp>^Z</samp>’ takes effect immediately, and has the additional side effect of causing pending output and typeahead to be discarded. </p> <p>There are a number of ways to refer to a job in the shell. The character ‘<samp>%</samp>’ introduces a job specification (<var>jobspec</var>). </p> <p>Job number <code>n</code> may be referred to as ‘<samp>%n</samp>’. The symbols ‘<samp>%%</samp>’ and ‘<samp>%+</samp>’ refer to the shell’s notion of the current job, which is the last job stopped while it was in the foreground or started in the background. A single ‘<samp>%</samp>’ (with no accompanying job specification) also refers to the current job. The previous job may be referenced using ‘<samp>%-</samp>’. If there is only a single job, ‘<samp>%+</samp>’ and ‘<samp>%-</samp>’ can both be used to refer to that job. In output pertaining to jobs (e.g., the output of the <code>jobs</code> command), the current job is always flagged with a ‘<samp>+</samp>’, and the previous job with a ‘<samp>-</samp>’. </p> <p>A job may also be referred to using a prefix of the name used to start it, or using a substring that appears in its command line. For example, ‘<samp>%ce</samp>’ refers to a stopped job whose command name begins with ‘<samp>ce</samp>’. Using ‘<samp>%?ce</samp>’, on the other hand, refers to any job containing the string ‘<samp>ce</samp>’ in its command line. If the prefix or substring matches more than one job, Bash reports an error. </p> <p>Simply naming a job can be used to bring it into the foreground: ‘<samp>%1</samp>’ is a synonym for ‘<samp>fg %1</samp>’, bringing job 1 from the background into the foreground. Similarly, ‘<samp>%1 &</samp>’ resumes job 1 in the background, equivalent to ‘<samp>bg %1</samp>’ </p> <p>The shell learns immediately whenever a job changes state. Normally, Bash waits until it is about to print a prompt before reporting changes in a job’s status so as to not interrupt any other output. If the <samp>-b</samp> option to the <code>set</code> builtin is enabled, Bash reports such changes immediately (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). Any trap on <code>SIGCHLD</code> is executed for each child process that exits. </p> <p>If an attempt to exit Bash is made while jobs are stopped, (or running, if the <code>checkjobs</code> option is enabled – see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>), the shell prints a warning message, and if the <code>checkjobs</code> option is enabled, lists the jobs and their statuses. The <code>jobs</code> command may then be used to inspect their status. If a second attempt to exit is made without an intervening command, Bash does not print another warning, and any stopped jobs are terminated. </p> <p>When the shell is waiting for a job or process using the <code>wait</code> builtin, and job control is enabled, <code>wait</code> will return when the job changes state. The <samp>-f</samp> option causes <code>wait</code> to wait until the job or process terminates before returning. </p> <hr> <span id="Job-Control-Builtins"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Job-Control-Variables" accesskey="n" rel="next">Job Control Variables</a>, Previous: <a href="#Job-Control-Basics" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Job Control Basics</a>, Up: <a href="#Job-Control" accesskey="u" rel="up">Job Control</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Job-Control-Builtins-1"></span><h3 class="section">7.2 Job Control Builtins</h3> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>bg</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-bg"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">bg [<var>jobspec</var> …] </pre></div> <p>Resume each suspended job <var>jobspec</var> in the background, as if it had been started with ‘<samp>&</samp>’. If <var>jobspec</var> is not supplied, the current job is used. The return status is zero unless it is run when job control is not enabled, or, when run with job control enabled, any <var>jobspec</var> was not found or specifies a job that was started without job control. </p> </dd> <dt><code>fg</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-fg"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">fg [<var>jobspec</var>] </pre></div> <p>Resume the job <var>jobspec</var> in the foreground and make it the current job. If <var>jobspec</var> is not supplied, the current job is used. The return status is that of the command placed into the foreground, or non-zero if run when job control is disabled or, when run with job control enabled, <var>jobspec</var> does not specify a valid job or <var>jobspec</var> specifies a job that was started without job control. </p> </dd> <dt><code>jobs</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-jobs"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">jobs [-lnprs] [<var>jobspec</var>] jobs -x <var>command</var> [<var>arguments</var>] </pre></div> <p>The first form lists the active jobs. The options have the following meanings: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-l</code></dt> <dd><p>List process <small>ID</small>s in addition to the normal information. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-n</code></dt> <dd><p>Display information only about jobs that have changed status since the user was last notified of their status. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-p</code></dt> <dd><p>List only the process <small>ID</small> of the job’s process group leader. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-r</code></dt> <dd><p>Display only running jobs. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-s</code></dt> <dd><p>Display only stopped jobs. </p></dd> </dl> <p>If <var>jobspec</var> is given, output is restricted to information about that job. If <var>jobspec</var> is not supplied, the status of all jobs is listed. </p> <p>If the <samp>-x</samp> option is supplied, <code>jobs</code> replaces any <var>jobspec</var> found in <var>command</var> or <var>arguments</var> with the corresponding process group <small>ID</small>, and executes <var>command</var>, passing it <var>argument</var>s, returning its exit status. </p> </dd> <dt><code>kill</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-kill"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">kill [-s <var>sigspec</var>] [-n <var>signum</var>] [-<var>sigspec</var>] <var>jobspec</var> or <var>pid</var> kill -l|-L [<var>exit_status</var>] </pre></div> <p>Send a signal specified by <var>sigspec</var> or <var>signum</var> to the process named by job specification <var>jobspec</var> or process <small>ID</small> <var>pid</var>. <var>sigspec</var> is either a case-insensitive signal name such as <code>SIGINT</code> (with or without the <code>SIG</code> prefix) or a signal number; <var>signum</var> is a signal number. If <var>sigspec</var> and <var>signum</var> are not present, <code>SIGTERM</code> is used. The <samp>-l</samp> option lists the signal names. If any arguments are supplied when <samp>-l</samp> is given, the names of the signals corresponding to the arguments are listed, and the return status is zero. <var>exit_status</var> is a number specifying a signal number or the exit status of a process terminated by a signal. The <samp>-L</samp> option is equivalent to <samp>-l</samp>. The return status is zero if at least one signal was successfully sent, or non-zero if an error occurs or an invalid option is encountered. </p> </dd> <dt><code>wait</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-wait"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">wait [-fn] [-p <var>varname</var>] [<var>jobspec</var> or <var>pid</var> …] </pre></div> <p>Wait until the child process specified by each process <small>ID</small> <var>pid</var> or job specification <var>jobspec</var> exits and return the exit status of the last command waited for. If a job spec is given, all processes in the job are waited for. If no arguments are given, <code>wait</code> waits for all running background jobs and the last-executed process substitution, if its process id is the same as <var>$!</var>, and the return status is zero. If the <samp>-n</samp> option is supplied, <code>wait</code> waits for a single job from the list of <var>pids</var> or <var>jobspecs</var> or, if no arguments are supplied, any job, to complete and returns its exit status. If none of the supplied arguments is a child of the shell, or if no arguments are supplied and the shell has no unwaited-for children, the exit status is 127. If the <samp>-p</samp> option is supplied, the process or job identifier of the job for which the exit status is returned is assigned to the variable <var>varname</var> named by the option argument. The variable will be unset initially, before any assignment. This is useful only when the <samp>-n</samp> option is supplied. Supplying the <samp>-f</samp> option, when job control is enabled, forces <code>wait</code> to wait for each <var>pid</var> or <var>jobspec</var> to terminate before returning its status, intead of returning when it changes status. If neither <var>jobspec</var> nor <var>pid</var> specifies an active child process of the shell, the return status is 127. </p> </dd> <dt><code>disown</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-disown"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">disown [-ar] [-h] [<var>jobspec</var> … | <var>pid</var> … ] </pre></div> <p>Without options, remove each <var>jobspec</var> from the table of active jobs. If the <samp>-h</samp> option is given, the job is not removed from the table, but is marked so that <code>SIGHUP</code> is not sent to the job if the shell receives a <code>SIGHUP</code>. If <var>jobspec</var> is not present, and neither the <samp>-a</samp> nor the <samp>-r</samp> option is supplied, the current job is used. If no <var>jobspec</var> is supplied, the <samp>-a</samp> option means to remove or mark all jobs; the <samp>-r</samp> option without a <var>jobspec</var> argument restricts operation to running jobs. </p> </dd> <dt><code>suspend</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-suspend"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">suspend [-f] </pre></div> <p>Suspend the execution of this shell until it receives a <code>SIGCONT</code> signal. A login shell cannot be suspended; the <samp>-f</samp> option can be used to override this and force the suspension. </p></dd> </dl> <p>When job control is not active, the <code>kill</code> and <code>wait</code> builtins do not accept <var>jobspec</var> arguments. They must be supplied process <small>ID</small>s. </p> <hr> <span id="Job-Control-Variables"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Job-Control-Builtins" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Job Control Builtins</a>, Up: <a href="#Job-Control" accesskey="u" rel="up">Job Control</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Job-Control-Variables-1"></span><h3 class="section">7.3 Job Control Variables</h3> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>auto_resume</code> <span id="index-auto_005fresume"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This variable controls how the shell interacts with the user and job control. If this variable exists then single word simple commands without redirections are treated as candidates for resumption of an existing job. There is no ambiguity allowed; if there is more than one job beginning with the string typed, then the most recently accessed job will be selected. The name of a stopped job, in this context, is the command line used to start it. If this variable is set to the value ‘<samp>exact</samp>’, the string supplied must match the name of a stopped job exactly; if set to ‘<samp>substring</samp>’, the string supplied needs to match a substring of the name of a stopped job. The ‘<samp>substring</samp>’ value provides functionality analogous to the ‘<samp>%?</samp>’ job <small>ID</small> (see <a href="#Job-Control-Basics">Job Control Basics</a>). If set to any other value, the supplied string must be a prefix of a stopped job’s name; this provides functionality analogous to the ‘<samp>%</samp>’ job <small>ID</small>. </p> </dd> </dl> <span id="index-Readline_002c-how-to-use"></span> <hr> <span id="Command-Line-Editing"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Using-History-Interactively" accesskey="n" rel="next">Using History Interactively</a>, Previous: <a href="#Job-Control" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Job Control</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Command-Line-Editing-1"></span><h2 class="chapter">8 Command Line Editing</h2> <p>This chapter describes the basic features of the <small>GNU</small> command line editing interface. Command line editing is provided by the Readline library, which is used by several different programs, including Bash. Command line editing is enabled by default when using an interactive shell, unless the <samp>--noediting</samp> option is supplied at shell invocation. Line editing is also used when using the <samp>-e</samp> option to the <code>read</code> builtin command (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). By default, the line editing commands are similar to those of Emacs. A vi-style line editing interface is also available. Line editing can be enabled at any time using the <samp>-o emacs</samp> or <samp>-o vi</samp> options to the <code>set</code> builtin command (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>), or disabled using the <samp>+o emacs</samp> or <samp>+o vi</samp> options to <code>set</code>. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Introduction-and-Notation" accesskey="1">Introduction and Notation</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Notation used in this text. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Readline-Interaction" accesskey="2">Readline Interaction</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The minimum set of commands for editing a line. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Readline-Init-File" accesskey="3">Readline Init File</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Customizing Readline from a user’s view. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="4">Bindable Readline Commands</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A description of most of the Readline commands available for binding </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Readline-vi-Mode" accesskey="5">Readline vi Mode</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A short description of how to make Readline behave like the vi editor. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Programmable-Completion" accesskey="6">Programmable Completion</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to specify the possible completions for a specific command. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins" accesskey="7">Programmable Completion Builtins</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Builtin commands to specify how to complete arguments for a particular command. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#A-Programmable-Completion-Example" accesskey="8">A Programmable Completion Example</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">An example shell function for generating possible completions. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Introduction-and-Notation"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Readline-Interaction" accesskey="n" rel="next">Readline Interaction</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command Line Editing</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Introduction-to-Line-Editing"></span><h3 class="section">8.1 Introduction to Line Editing</h3> <p>The following paragraphs describe the notation used to represent keystrokes. </p> <p>The text <kbd>C-k</kbd> is read as ‘Control-K’ and describes the character produced when the <tt class="key">k</tt> key is pressed while the Control key is depressed. </p> <p>The text <kbd>M-k</kbd> is read as ‘Meta-K’ and describes the character produced when the Meta key (if you have one) is depressed, and the <tt class="key">k</tt> key is pressed. The Meta key is labeled <tt class="key">ALT</tt> on many keyboards. On keyboards with two keys labeled <tt class="key">ALT</tt> (usually to either side of the space bar), the <tt class="key">ALT</tt> on the left side is generally set to work as a Meta key. The <tt class="key">ALT</tt> key on the right may also be configured to work as a Meta key or may be configured as some other modifier, such as a Compose key for typing accented characters. </p> <p>If you do not have a Meta or <tt class="key">ALT</tt> key, or another key working as a Meta key, the identical keystroke can be generated by typing <tt class="key">ESC</tt> <em>first</em>, and then typing <tt class="key">k</tt>. Either process is known as <em>metafying</em> the <tt class="key">k</tt> key. </p> <p>The text <kbd>M-C-k</kbd> is read as ‘Meta-Control-k’ and describes the character produced by <em>metafying</em> <kbd>C-k</kbd>. </p> <p>In addition, several keys have their own names. Specifically, <tt class="key">DEL</tt>, <tt class="key">ESC</tt>, <tt class="key">LFD</tt>, <tt class="key">SPC</tt>, <tt class="key">RET</tt>, and <tt class="key">TAB</tt> all stand for themselves when seen in this text, or in an init file (see <a href="#Readline-Init-File">Readline Init File</a>). If your keyboard lacks a <tt class="key">LFD</tt> key, typing <tt class="key">C-j</tt> will produce the desired character. The <tt class="key">RET</tt> key may be labeled <tt class="key">Return</tt> or <tt class="key">Enter</tt> on some keyboards. </p> <hr> <span id="Readline-Interaction"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Readline-Init-File" accesskey="n" rel="next">Readline Init File</a>, Previous: <a href="#Introduction-and-Notation" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Introduction and Notation</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command Line Editing</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Readline-Interaction-1"></span><h3 class="section">8.2 Readline Interaction</h3> <span id="index-interaction_002c-readline"></span> <p>Often during an interactive session you type in a long line of text, only to notice that the first word on the line is misspelled. The Readline library gives you a set of commands for manipulating the text as you type it in, allowing you to just fix your typo, and not forcing you to retype the majority of the line. Using these editing commands, you move the cursor to the place that needs correction, and delete or insert the text of the corrections. Then, when you are satisfied with the line, you simply press <tt class="key">RET</tt>. You do not have to be at the end of the line to press <tt class="key">RET</tt>; the entire line is accepted regardless of the location of the cursor within the line. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Readline-Bare-Essentials" accesskey="1">Readline Bare Essentials</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The least you need to know about Readline. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Readline-Movement-Commands" accesskey="2">Readline Movement Commands</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Moving about the input line. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Readline-Killing-Commands" accesskey="3">Readline Killing Commands</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to delete text, and how to get it back! </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Readline-Arguments" accesskey="4">Readline Arguments</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Giving numeric arguments to commands. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Searching" accesskey="5">Searching</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Searching through previous lines. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Readline-Bare-Essentials"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Readline-Movement-Commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Readline Movement Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Readline-Interaction" accesskey="u" rel="up">Readline Interaction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Readline-Bare-Essentials-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.2.1 Readline Bare Essentials</h4> <span id="index-notation_002c-readline"></span> <span id="index-command-editing"></span> <span id="index-editing-command-lines"></span> <p>In order to enter characters into the line, simply type them. The typed character appears where the cursor was, and then the cursor moves one space to the right. If you mistype a character, you can use your erase character to back up and delete the mistyped character. </p> <p>Sometimes you may mistype a character, and not notice the error until you have typed several other characters. In that case, you can type <kbd>C-b</kbd> to move the cursor to the left, and then correct your mistake. Afterwards, you can move the cursor to the right with <kbd>C-f</kbd>. </p> <p>When you add text in the middle of a line, you will notice that characters to the right of the cursor are ‘pushed over’ to make room for the text that you have inserted. Likewise, when you delete text behind the cursor, characters to the right of the cursor are ‘pulled back’ to fill in the blank space created by the removal of the text. A list of the bare essentials for editing the text of an input line follows. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><kbd>C-b</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Move back one character. </p></dd> <dt><kbd>C-f</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Move forward one character. </p></dd> <dt><tt class="key">DEL</tt> or <tt class="key">Backspace</tt></dt> <dd><p>Delete the character to the left of the cursor. </p></dd> <dt><kbd>C-d</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Delete the character underneath the cursor. </p></dd> <dt>Printing characters<!-- /@w --></dt> <dd><p>Insert the character into the line at the cursor. </p></dd> <dt><kbd>C-_</kbd> or <kbd>C-x C-u</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Undo the last editing command. You can undo all the way back to an empty line. </p></dd> </dl> <p>(Depending on your configuration, the <tt class="key">Backspace</tt> key be set to delete the character to the left of the cursor and the <tt class="key">DEL</tt> key set to delete the character underneath the cursor, like <kbd>C-d</kbd>, rather than the character to the left of the cursor.) </p> <hr> <span id="Readline-Movement-Commands"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Readline-Killing-Commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Readline Killing Commands</a>, Previous: <a href="#Readline-Bare-Essentials" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Readline Bare Essentials</a>, Up: <a href="#Readline-Interaction" accesskey="u" rel="up">Readline Interaction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Readline-Movement-Commands-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.2.2 Readline Movement Commands</h4> <p>The above table describes the most basic keystrokes that you need in order to do editing of the input line. For your convenience, many other commands have been added in addition to <kbd>C-b</kbd>, <kbd>C-f</kbd>, <kbd>C-d</kbd>, and <tt class="key">DEL</tt>. Here are some commands for moving more rapidly about the line. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><kbd>C-a</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Move to the start of the line. </p></dd> <dt><kbd>C-e</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Move to the end of the line. </p></dd> <dt><kbd>M-f</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Move forward a word, where a word is composed of letters and digits. </p></dd> <dt><kbd>M-b</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Move backward a word. </p></dd> <dt><kbd>C-l</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Clear the screen, reprinting the current line at the top. </p></dd> </dl> <p>Notice how <kbd>C-f</kbd> moves forward a character, while <kbd>M-f</kbd> moves forward a word. It is a loose convention that control keystrokes operate on characters while meta keystrokes operate on words. </p> <hr> <span id="Readline-Killing-Commands"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Readline-Arguments" accesskey="n" rel="next">Readline Arguments</a>, Previous: <a href="#Readline-Movement-Commands" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Readline Movement Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Readline-Interaction" accesskey="u" rel="up">Readline Interaction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Readline-Killing-Commands-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.2.3 Readline Killing Commands</h4> <span id="index-killing-text"></span> <span id="index-yanking-text"></span> <p><em>Killing</em> text means to delete the text from the line, but to save it away for later use, usually by <em>yanking</em> (re-inserting) it back into the line. (‘Cut’ and ‘paste’ are more recent jargon for ‘kill’ and ‘yank’.) </p> <p>If the description for a command says that it ‘kills’ text, then you can be sure that you can get the text back in a different (or the same) place later. </p> <p>When you use a kill command, the text is saved in a <em>kill-ring</em>. Any number of consecutive kills save all of the killed text together, so that when you yank it back, you get it all. The kill ring is not line specific; the text that you killed on a previously typed line is available to be yanked back later, when you are typing another line. <span id="index-kill-ring"></span> </p> <p>Here is the list of commands for killing text. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><kbd>C-k</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Kill the text from the current cursor position to the end of the line. </p> </dd> <dt><kbd>M-d</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Kill from the cursor to the end of the current word, or, if between words, to the end of the next word. Word boundaries are the same as those used by <kbd>M-f</kbd>. </p> </dd> <dt><kbd>M-<span class="key">DEL</span></kbd></dt> <dd><p>Kill from the cursor the start of the current word, or, if between words, to the start of the previous word. Word boundaries are the same as those used by <kbd>M-b</kbd>. </p> </dd> <dt><kbd>C-w</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Kill from the cursor to the previous whitespace. This is different than <kbd>M-<span class="key">DEL</span></kbd> because the word boundaries differ. </p> </dd> </dl> <p>Here is how to <em>yank</em> the text back into the line. Yanking means to copy the most-recently-killed text from the kill buffer. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><kbd>C-y</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Yank the most recently killed text back into the buffer at the cursor. </p> </dd> <dt><kbd>M-y</kbd></dt> <dd><p>Rotate the kill-ring, and yank the new top. You can only do this if the prior command is <kbd>C-y</kbd> or <kbd>M-y</kbd>. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Readline-Arguments"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Searching" accesskey="n" rel="next">Searching</a>, Previous: <a href="#Readline-Killing-Commands" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Readline Killing Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Readline-Interaction" accesskey="u" rel="up">Readline Interaction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Readline-Arguments-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.2.4 Readline Arguments</h4> <p>You can pass numeric arguments to Readline commands. Sometimes the argument acts as a repeat count, other times it is the <i>sign</i> of the argument that is significant. If you pass a negative argument to a command which normally acts in a forward direction, that command will act in a backward direction. For example, to kill text back to the start of the line, you might type ‘<samp>M-- C-k</samp>’. </p> <p>The general way to pass numeric arguments to a command is to type meta digits before the command. If the first ‘digit’ typed is a minus sign (‘<samp>-</samp>’), then the sign of the argument will be negative. Once you have typed one meta digit to get the argument started, you can type the remainder of the digits, and then the command. For example, to give the <kbd>C-d</kbd> command an argument of 10, you could type ‘<samp>M-1 0 C-d</samp>’, which will delete the next ten characters on the input line. </p> <hr> <span id="Searching"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Readline-Arguments" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Readline Arguments</a>, Up: <a href="#Readline-Interaction" accesskey="u" rel="up">Readline Interaction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Searching-for-Commands-in-the-History"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.2.5 Searching for Commands in the History</h4> <p>Readline provides commands for searching through the command history (see <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a>) for lines containing a specified string. There are two search modes: <em>incremental</em> and <em>non-incremental</em>. </p> <p>Incremental searches begin before the user has finished typing the search string. As each character of the search string is typed, Readline displays the next entry from the history matching the string typed so far. An incremental search requires only as many characters as needed to find the desired history entry. To search backward in the history for a particular string, type <kbd>C-r</kbd>. Typing <kbd>C-s</kbd> searches forward through the history. The characters present in the value of the <code>isearch-terminators</code> variable are used to terminate an incremental search. If that variable has not been assigned a value, the <tt class="key">ESC</tt> and <kbd>C-J</kbd> characters will terminate an incremental search. <kbd>C-g</kbd> will abort an incremental search and restore the original line. When the search is terminated, the history entry containing the search string becomes the current line. </p> <p>To find other matching entries in the history list, type <kbd>C-r</kbd> or <kbd>C-s</kbd> as appropriate. This will search backward or forward in the history for the next entry matching the search string typed so far. Any other key sequence bound to a Readline command will terminate the search and execute that command. For instance, a <tt class="key">RET</tt> will terminate the search and accept the line, thereby executing the command from the history list. A movement command will terminate the search, make the last line found the current line, and begin editing. </p> <p>Readline remembers the last incremental search string. If two <kbd>C-r</kbd>s are typed without any intervening characters defining a new search string, any remembered search string is used. </p> <p>Non-incremental searches read the entire search string before starting to search for matching history lines. The search string may be typed by the user or be part of the contents of the current line. </p> <hr> <span id="Readline-Init-File"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Bindable Readline Commands</a>, Previous: <a href="#Readline-Interaction" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Readline Interaction</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command Line Editing</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Readline-Init-File-1"></span><h3 class="section">8.3 Readline Init File</h3> <span id="index-initialization-file_002c-readline"></span> <p>Although the Readline library comes with a set of Emacs-like keybindings installed by default, it is possible to use a different set of keybindings. Any user can customize programs that use Readline by putting commands in an <em>inputrc</em> file, conventionally in his home directory. The name of this file is taken from the value of the shell variable <code>INPUTRC</code>. If that variable is unset, the default is <samp>~/.inputrc</samp>. If that file does not exist or cannot be read, the ultimate default is <samp>/etc/inputrc</samp>. The <code>bind</code><!-- /@w --> builtin command can also be used to set Readline keybindings and variables. See <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>. </p> <p>When a program which uses the Readline library starts up, the init file is read, and the key bindings are set. </p> <p>In addition, the <code>C-x C-r</code> command re-reads this init file, thus incorporating any changes that you might have made to it. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax" accesskey="1">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Syntax for the commands in the inputrc file. </td></tr> <tr><th colspan="3" align="left" valign="top"><pre class="menu-comment"> </pre></th></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Conditional-Init-Constructs" accesskey="2">Conditional Init Constructs</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Conditional key bindings in the inputrc file. </td></tr> <tr><th colspan="3" align="left" valign="top"><pre class="menu-comment"> </pre></th></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Sample-Init-File" accesskey="3">Sample Init File</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">An example inputrc file. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Readline-Init-File-Syntax"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Conditional-Init-Constructs" accesskey="n" rel="next">Conditional Init Constructs</a>, Up: <a href="#Readline-Init-File" accesskey="u" rel="up">Readline Init File</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Readline-Init-File-Syntax-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.3.1 Readline Init File Syntax</h4> <p>There are only a few basic constructs allowed in the Readline init file. Blank lines are ignored. Lines beginning with a ‘<samp>#</samp>’ are comments. Lines beginning with a ‘<samp>$</samp>’ indicate conditional constructs (see <a href="#Conditional-Init-Constructs">Conditional Init Constructs</a>). Other lines denote variable settings and key bindings. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt>Variable Settings</dt> <dd><p>You can modify the run-time behavior of Readline by altering the values of variables in Readline using the <code>set</code> command within the init file. The syntax is simple: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">set <var>variable</var> <var>value</var> </pre></div> <p>Here, for example, is how to change from the default Emacs-like key binding to use <code>vi</code> line editing commands: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">set editing-mode vi </pre></div> <p>Variable names and values, where appropriate, are recognized without regard to case. Unrecognized variable names are ignored. </p> <p>Boolean variables (those that can be set to on or off) are set to on if the value is null or empty, <var>on</var> (case-insensitive), or 1. Any other value results in the variable being set to off. </p> <p>The <code>bind <span class="nolinebreak">-V</span></code><!-- /@w --> command lists the current Readline variable names and values. See <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>. </p> <p>A great deal of run-time behavior is changeable with the following variables. </p> <span id="index-variables_002c-readline"></span> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>bell-style</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-bell_002dstyle"></span> <p>Controls what happens when Readline wants to ring the terminal bell. If set to ‘<samp>none</samp>’, Readline never rings the bell. If set to ‘<samp>visible</samp>’, Readline uses a visible bell if one is available. If set to ‘<samp>audible</samp>’ (the default), Readline attempts to ring the terminal’s bell. </p> </dd> <dt><code>bind-tty-special-chars</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-bind_002dtty_002dspecial_002dchars"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’ (the default), Readline attempts to bind the control characters treated specially by the kernel’s terminal driver to their Readline equivalents. </p> </dd> <dt><code>blink-matching-paren</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-blink_002dmatching_002dparen"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline attempts to briefly move the cursor to an opening parenthesis when a closing parenthesis is inserted. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>colored-completion-prefix</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-colored_002dcompletion_002dprefix"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, when listing completions, Readline displays the common prefix of the set of possible completions using a different color. The color definitions are taken from the value of the <code>LS_COLORS</code> environment variable. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>colored-stats</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-colored_002dstats"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline displays possible completions using different colors to indicate their file type. The color definitions are taken from the value of the <code>LS_COLORS</code> environment variable. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>comment-begin</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-comment_002dbegin"></span> <p>The string to insert at the beginning of the line when the <code>insert-comment</code> command is executed. The default value is <code>"#"</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>completion-display-width</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-completion_002ddisplay_002dwidth"></span> <p>The number of screen columns used to display possible matches when performing completion. The value is ignored if it is less than 0 or greater than the terminal screen width. A value of 0 will cause matches to be displayed one per line. The default value is -1. </p> </dd> <dt><code>completion-ignore-case</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-completion_002dignore_002dcase"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline performs filename matching and completion in a case-insensitive fashion. The default value is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>completion-map-case</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-completion_002dmap_002dcase"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, and <var>completion-ignore-case</var> is enabled, Readline treats hyphens (‘<samp>-</samp>’) and underscores (‘<samp>_</samp>’) as equivalent when performing case-insensitive filename matching and completion. The default value is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>completion-prefix-display-length</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-completion_002dprefix_002ddisplay_002dlength"></span> <p>The length in characters of the common prefix of a list of possible completions that is displayed without modification. When set to a value greater than zero, common prefixes longer than this value are replaced with an ellipsis when displaying possible completions. </p> </dd> <dt><code>completion-query-items</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-completion_002dquery_002ditems"></span> <p>The number of possible completions that determines when the user is asked whether the list of possibilities should be displayed. If the number of possible completions is greater than or equal to this value, Readline will ask whether or not the user wishes to view them; otherwise, they are simply listed. This variable must be set to an integer value greater than or equal to 0. A negative value means Readline should never ask. The default limit is <code>100</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>convert-meta</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-convert_002dmeta"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline will convert characters with the eighth bit set to an <small>ASCII</small> key sequence by stripping the eighth bit and prefixing an <tt class="key">ESC</tt> character, converting them to a meta-prefixed key sequence. The default value is ‘<samp>on</samp>’, but will be set to ‘<samp>off</samp>’ if the locale is one that contains eight-bit characters. </p> </dd> <dt><code>disable-completion</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-disable_002dcompletion"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>On</samp>’, Readline will inhibit word completion. Completion characters will be inserted into the line as if they had been mapped to <code>self-insert</code>. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>echo-control-characters</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-echo_002dcontrol_002dcharacters"></span> <p>When set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, on operating systems that indicate they support it, readline echoes a character corresponding to a signal generated from the keyboard. The default is ‘<samp>on</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>editing-mode</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-editing_002dmode"></span> <p>The <code>editing-mode</code> variable controls which default set of key bindings is used. By default, Readline starts up in Emacs editing mode, where the keystrokes are most similar to Emacs. This variable can be set to either ‘<samp>emacs</samp>’ or ‘<samp>vi</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>emacs-mode-string</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-emacs_002dmode_002dstring"></span> <p>If the <var>show-mode-in-prompt</var> variable is enabled, this string is displayed immediately before the last line of the primary prompt when emacs editing mode is active. The value is expanded like a key binding, so the standard set of meta- and control prefixes and backslash escape sequences is available. Use the ‘<samp>\1</samp>’ and ‘<samp>\2</samp>’ escapes to begin and end sequences of non-printing characters, which can be used to embed a terminal control sequence into the mode string. The default is ‘<samp>@</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>enable-bracketed-paste</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-enable_002dbracketed_002dpaste"></span> <p>When set to ‘<samp>On</samp>’, Readline will configure the terminal in a way that will enable it to insert each paste into the editing buffer as a single string of characters, instead of treating each character as if it had been read from the keyboard. This can prevent pasted characters from being interpreted as editing commands. The default is ‘<samp>On</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>enable-keypad</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-enable_002dkeypad"></span> <p>When set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline will try to enable the application keypad when it is called. Some systems need this to enable the arrow keys. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>enable-meta-key</code></dt> <dd><p>When set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline will try to enable any meta modifier key the terminal claims to support when it is called. On many terminals, the meta key is used to send eight-bit characters. The default is ‘<samp>on</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>expand-tilde</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-expand_002dtilde"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, tilde expansion is performed when Readline attempts word completion. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>history-preserve-point</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-history_002dpreserve_002dpoint"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, the history code attempts to place the point (the current cursor position) at the same location on each history line retrieved with <code>previous-history</code> or <code>next-history</code>. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>history-size</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-history_002dsize"></span> <p>Set the maximum number of history entries saved in the history list. If set to zero, any existing history entries are deleted and no new entries are saved. If set to a value less than zero, the number of history entries is not limited. By default, the number of history entries is not limited. If an attempt is made to set <var>history-size</var> to a non-numeric value, the maximum number of history entries will be set to 500. </p> </dd> <dt><code>horizontal-scroll-mode</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-horizontal_002dscroll_002dmode"></span> <p>This variable can be set to either ‘<samp>on</samp>’ or ‘<samp>off</samp>’. Setting it to ‘<samp>on</samp>’ means that the text of the lines being edited will scroll horizontally on a single screen line when they are longer than the width of the screen, instead of wrapping onto a new screen line. This variable is automatically set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’ for terminals of height 1. By default, this variable is set to ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>input-meta</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-input_002dmeta"></span> <span id="index-meta_002dflag"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline will enable eight-bit input (it will not clear the eighth bit in the characters it reads), regardless of what the terminal claims it can support. The default value is ‘<samp>off</samp>’, but Readline will set it to ‘<samp>on</samp>’ if the locale contains eight-bit characters. The name <code>meta-flag</code> is a synonym for this variable. </p> </dd> <dt><code>isearch-terminators</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-isearch_002dterminators"></span> <p>The string of characters that should terminate an incremental search without subsequently executing the character as a command (see <a href="#Searching">Searching</a>). If this variable has not been given a value, the characters <tt class="key">ESC</tt> and <kbd>C-J</kbd> will terminate an incremental search. </p> </dd> <dt><code>keymap</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-keymap"></span> <p>Sets Readline’s idea of the current keymap for key binding commands. Built-in <code>keymap</code> names are <code>emacs</code>, <code>emacs-standard</code>, <code>emacs-meta</code>, <code>emacs-ctlx</code>, <code>vi</code>, <code>vi-move</code>, <code>vi-command</code>, and <code>vi-insert</code>. <code>vi</code> is equivalent to <code>vi-command</code> (<code>vi-move</code> is also a synonym); <code>emacs</code> is equivalent to <code>emacs-standard</code>. Applications may add additional names. The default value is <code>emacs</code>. The value of the <code>editing-mode</code> variable also affects the default keymap. </p> </dd> <dt><code>keyseq-timeout</code></dt> <dd><p>Specifies the duration Readline will wait for a character when reading an ambiguous key sequence (one that can form a complete key sequence using the input read so far, or can take additional input to complete a longer key sequence). If no input is received within the timeout, Readline will use the shorter but complete key sequence. Readline uses this value to determine whether or not input is available on the current input source (<code>rl_instream</code> by default). The value is specified in milliseconds, so a value of 1000 means that Readline will wait one second for additional input. If this variable is set to a value less than or equal to zero, or to a non-numeric value, Readline will wait until another key is pressed to decide which key sequence to complete. The default value is <code>500</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>mark-directories</code></dt> <dd><p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, completed directory names have a slash appended. The default is ‘<samp>on</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>mark-modified-lines</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-mark_002dmodified_002dlines"></span> <p>This variable, when set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, causes Readline to display an asterisk (‘<samp>*</samp>’) at the start of history lines which have been modified. This variable is ‘<samp>off</samp>’ by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>mark-symlinked-directories</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-mark_002dsymlinked_002ddirectories"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, completed names which are symbolic links to directories have a slash appended (subject to the value of <code>mark-directories</code>). The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>match-hidden-files</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-match_002dhidden_002dfiles"></span> <p>This variable, when set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, causes Readline to match files whose names begin with a ‘<samp>.</samp>’ (hidden files) when performing filename completion. If set to ‘<samp>off</samp>’, the leading ‘<samp>.</samp>’ must be supplied by the user in the filename to be completed. This variable is ‘<samp>on</samp>’ by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>menu-complete-display-prefix</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-menu_002dcomplete_002ddisplay_002dprefix"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, menu completion displays the common prefix of the list of possible completions (which may be empty) before cycling through the list. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>output-meta</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-output_002dmeta"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline will display characters with the eighth bit set directly rather than as a meta-prefixed escape sequence. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’, but Readline will set it to ‘<samp>on</samp>’ if the locale contains eight-bit characters. </p> </dd> <dt><code>page-completions</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-page_002dcompletions"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline uses an internal <code>more</code>-like pager to display a screenful of possible completions at a time. This variable is ‘<samp>on</samp>’ by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>print-completions-horizontally</code></dt> <dd><p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline will display completions with matches sorted horizontally in alphabetical order, rather than down the screen. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>revert-all-at-newline</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-revert_002dall_002dat_002dnewline"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, Readline will undo all changes to history lines before returning when <code>accept-line</code> is executed. By default, history lines may be modified and retain individual undo lists across calls to <code>readline</code>. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>show-all-if-ambiguous</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-show_002dall_002dif_002dambiguous"></span> <p>This alters the default behavior of the completion functions. If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, words which have more than one possible completion cause the matches to be listed immediately instead of ringing the bell. The default value is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>show-all-if-unmodified</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-show_002dall_002dif_002dunmodified"></span> <p>This alters the default behavior of the completion functions in a fashion similar to <var>show-all-if-ambiguous</var>. If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, words which have more than one possible completion without any possible partial completion (the possible completions don’t share a common prefix) cause the matches to be listed immediately instead of ringing the bell. The default value is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>show-mode-in-prompt</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-show_002dmode_002din_002dprompt"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, add a string to the beginning of the prompt indicating the editing mode: emacs, vi command, or vi insertion. The mode strings are user-settable (e.g., <var>emacs-mode-string</var>). The default value is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>skip-completed-text</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-skip_002dcompleted_002dtext"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, this alters the default completion behavior when inserting a single match into the line. It’s only active when performing completion in the middle of a word. If enabled, readline does not insert characters from the completion that match characters after point in the word being completed, so portions of the word following the cursor are not duplicated. For instance, if this is enabled, attempting completion when the cursor is after the ‘<samp>e</samp>’ in ‘<samp>Makefile</samp>’ will result in ‘<samp>Makefile</samp>’ rather than ‘<samp>Makefilefile</samp>’, assuming there is a single possible completion. The default value is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>vi-cmd-mode-string</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-vi_002dcmd_002dmode_002dstring"></span> <p>If the <var>show-mode-in-prompt</var> variable is enabled, this string is displayed immediately before the last line of the primary prompt when vi editing mode is active and in command mode. The value is expanded like a key binding, so the standard set of meta- and control prefixes and backslash escape sequences is available. Use the ‘<samp>\1</samp>’ and ‘<samp>\2</samp>’ escapes to begin and end sequences of non-printing characters, which can be used to embed a terminal control sequence into the mode string. The default is ‘<samp>(cmd)</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>vi-ins-mode-string</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-vi_002dins_002dmode_002dstring"></span> <p>If the <var>show-mode-in-prompt</var> variable is enabled, this string is displayed immediately before the last line of the primary prompt when vi editing mode is active and in insertion mode. The value is expanded like a key binding, so the standard set of meta- and control prefixes and backslash escape sequences is available. Use the ‘<samp>\1</samp>’ and ‘<samp>\2</samp>’ escapes to begin and end sequences of non-printing characters, which can be used to embed a terminal control sequence into the mode string. The default is ‘<samp>(ins)</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>visible-stats</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-visible_002dstats"></span> <p>If set to ‘<samp>on</samp>’, a character denoting a file’s type is appended to the filename when listing possible completions. The default is ‘<samp>off</samp>’. </p> </dd> </dl> </dd> <dt>Key Bindings</dt> <dd><p>The syntax for controlling key bindings in the init file is simple. First you need to find the name of the command that you want to change. The following sections contain tables of the command name, the default keybinding, if any, and a short description of what the command does. </p> <p>Once you know the name of the command, simply place on a line in the init file the name of the key you wish to bind the command to, a colon, and then the name of the command. There can be no space between the key name and the colon – that will be interpreted as part of the key name. The name of the key can be expressed in different ways, depending on what you find most comfortable. </p> <p>In addition to command names, readline allows keys to be bound to a string that is inserted when the key is pressed (a <var>macro</var>). </p> <p>The <code>bind <span class="nolinebreak">-p</span></code><!-- /@w --> command displays Readline function names and bindings in a format that can put directly into an initialization file. See <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><var>keyname</var>: <var><span class="nolinebreak">function-name</span></var> or <var>macro</var><!-- /@w --></dt> <dd><p><var>keyname</var> is the name of a key spelled out in English. For example: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">Control-u: universal-argument Meta-Rubout: backward-kill-word Control-o: "> output" </pre></div> <p>In the example above, <kbd>C-u</kbd> is bound to the function <code>universal-argument</code>, <kbd>M-DEL</kbd> is bound to the function <code>backward-kill-word</code>, and <kbd>C-o</kbd> is bound to run the macro expressed on the right hand side (that is, to insert the text ‘<samp>> output</samp>’ into the line). </p> <p>A number of symbolic character names are recognized while processing this key binding syntax: <var>DEL</var>, <var>ESC</var>, <var>ESCAPE</var>, <var>LFD</var>, <var>NEWLINE</var>, <var>RET</var>, <var>RETURN</var>, <var>RUBOUT</var>, <var>SPACE</var>, <var>SPC</var>, and <var>TAB</var>. </p> </dd> <dt>"<var>keyseq</var>": <var><span class="nolinebreak">function-name</span></var> or <var>macro</var><!-- /@w --></dt> <dd><p><var>keyseq</var> differs from <var>keyname</var> above in that strings denoting an entire key sequence can be specified, by placing the key sequence in double quotes. Some <small>GNU</small> Emacs style key escapes can be used, as in the following example, but the special character names are not recognized. </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">"\C-u": universal-argument "\C-x\C-r": re-read-init-file "\e[11~": "Function Key 1" </pre></div> <p>In the above example, <kbd>C-u</kbd> is again bound to the function <code>universal-argument</code> (just as it was in the first example), ‘<samp><kbd>C-x</kbd> <kbd>C-r</kbd></samp>’ is bound to the function <code>re-read-init-file</code>, and ‘<samp><span class="key">ESC</span> <span class="key">[</span> <span class="key">1</span> <span class="key">1</span> <span class="key">~</span></samp>’ is bound to insert the text ‘<samp>Function Key 1</samp>’. </p> </dd> </dl> <p>The following <small>GNU</small> Emacs style escape sequences are available when specifying key sequences: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code><kbd>\C-</kbd></code></dt> <dd><p>control prefix </p></dd> <dt><code><kbd>\M-</kbd></code></dt> <dd><p>meta prefix </p></dd> <dt><code><kbd>\e</kbd></code></dt> <dd><p>an escape character </p></dd> <dt><code><kbd>\\</kbd></code></dt> <dd><p>backslash </p></dd> <dt><code><kbd>\"</kbd></code></dt> <dd><p><tt class="key">"</tt>, a double quotation mark </p></dd> <dt><code><kbd>\'</kbd></code></dt> <dd><p><tt class="key">'</tt>, a single quote or apostrophe </p></dd> </dl> <p>In addition to the <small>GNU</small> Emacs style escape sequences, a second set of backslash escapes is available: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>\a</code></dt> <dd><p>alert (bell) </p></dd> <dt><code>\b</code></dt> <dd><p>backspace </p></dd> <dt><code>\d</code></dt> <dd><p>delete </p></dd> <dt><code>\f</code></dt> <dd><p>form feed </p></dd> <dt><code>\n</code></dt> <dd><p>newline </p></dd> <dt><code>\r</code></dt> <dd><p>carriage return </p></dd> <dt><code>\t</code></dt> <dd><p>horizontal tab </p></dd> <dt><code>\v</code></dt> <dd><p>vertical tab </p></dd> <dt><code>\<var>nnn</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value <var>nnn</var> (one to three digits) </p></dd> <dt><code>\x<var>HH</var></code></dt> <dd><p>the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value <var>HH</var> (one or two hex digits) </p></dd> </dl> <p>When entering the text of a macro, single or double quotes must be used to indicate a macro definition. Unquoted text is assumed to be a function name. In the macro body, the backslash escapes described above are expanded. Backslash will quote any other character in the macro text, including ‘<samp>"</samp>’ and ‘<samp>'</samp>’. For example, the following binding will make ‘<samp><kbd>C-x</kbd> \</samp>’ insert a single ‘<samp>\</samp>’ into the line: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">"\C-x\\": "\\" </pre></div> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Conditional-Init-Constructs"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Sample-Init-File" accesskey="n" rel="next">Sample Init File</a>, Previous: <a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Readline Init File Syntax</a>, Up: <a href="#Readline-Init-File" accesskey="u" rel="up">Readline Init File</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Conditional-Init-Constructs-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.3.2 Conditional Init Constructs</h4> <p>Readline implements a facility similar in spirit to the conditional compilation features of the C preprocessor which allows key bindings and variable settings to be performed as the result of tests. There are four parser directives used. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>$if</code></dt> <dd><p>The <code>$if</code> construct allows bindings to be made based on the editing mode, the terminal being used, or the application using Readline. The text of the test, after any comparison operator, extends to the end of the line; unless otherwise noted, no characters are required to isolate it. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>mode</code></dt> <dd><p>The <code>mode=</code> form of the <code>$if</code> directive is used to test whether Readline is in <code>emacs</code> or <code>vi</code> mode. This may be used in conjunction with the ‘<samp>set keymap</samp>’ command, for instance, to set bindings in the <code>emacs-standard</code> and <code>emacs-ctlx</code> keymaps only if Readline is starting out in <code>emacs</code> mode. </p> </dd> <dt><code>term</code></dt> <dd><p>The <code>term=</code> form may be used to include terminal-specific key bindings, perhaps to bind the key sequences output by the terminal’s function keys. The word on the right side of the ‘<samp>=</samp>’ is tested against both the full name of the terminal and the portion of the terminal name before the first ‘<samp>-</samp>’. This allows <code>sun</code> to match both <code>sun</code> and <code>sun-cmd</code>, for instance. </p> </dd> <dt><code>version</code></dt> <dd><p>The <code>version</code> test may be used to perform comparisons against specific Readline versions. The <code>version</code> expands to the current Readline version. The set of comparison operators includes ‘<samp>=</samp>’ (and ‘<samp>==</samp>’), ‘<samp>!=</samp>’, ‘<samp><=</samp>’, ‘<samp>>=</samp>’, ‘<samp><</samp>’, and ‘<samp>></samp>’. The version number supplied on the right side of the operator consists of a major version number, an optional decimal point, and an optional minor version (e.g., ‘<samp>7.1</samp>’). If the minor version is omitted, it is assumed to be ‘<samp>0</samp>’. The operator may be separated from the string <code>version</code> and from the version number argument by whitespace. The following example sets a variable if the Readline version being used is 7.0 or newer: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">$if version >= 7.0 set show-mode-in-prompt on $endif </pre></div> </dd> <dt><code>application</code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>application</var> construct is used to include application-specific settings. Each program using the Readline library sets the <var>application name</var>, and you can test for a particular value. This could be used to bind key sequences to functions useful for a specific program. For instance, the following command adds a key sequence that quotes the current or previous word in Bash: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">$if Bash # Quote the current or previous word "\C-xq": "\eb\"\ef\"" $endif </pre></div> </dd> <dt><code>variable</code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>variable</var> construct provides simple equality tests for Readline variables and values. The permitted comparison operators are ‘<samp>=</samp>’, ‘<samp>==</samp>’, and ‘<samp>!=</samp>’. The variable name must be separated from the comparison operator by whitespace; the operator may be separated from the value on the right hand side by whitespace. Both string and boolean variables may be tested. Boolean variables must be tested against the values <var>on</var> and <var>off</var>. The following example is equivalent to the <code>mode=emacs</code> test described above: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">$if editing-mode == emacs set show-mode-in-prompt on $endif </pre></div> </dd> </dl> </dd> <dt><code>$endif</code></dt> <dd><p>This command, as seen in the previous example, terminates an <code>$if</code> command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>$else</code></dt> <dd><p>Commands in this branch of the <code>$if</code> directive are executed if the test fails. </p> </dd> <dt><code>$include</code></dt> <dd><p>This directive takes a single filename as an argument and reads commands and bindings from that file. For example, the following directive reads from <samp>/etc/inputrc</samp>: </p><div class="example"> <pre class="example">$include /etc/inputrc </pre></div> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Sample-Init-File"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Conditional-Init-Constructs" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Conditional Init Constructs</a>, Up: <a href="#Readline-Init-File" accesskey="u" rel="up">Readline Init File</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Sample-Init-File-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.3.3 Sample Init File</h4> <p>Here is an example of an <var>inputrc</var> file. This illustrates key binding, variable assignment, and conditional syntax. </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example"># This file controls the behaviour of line input editing for # programs that use the GNU Readline library. Existing # programs include FTP, Bash, and GDB. # # You can re-read the inputrc file with C-x C-r. # Lines beginning with '#' are comments. # # First, include any system-wide bindings and variable # assignments from /etc/Inputrc $include /etc/Inputrc # # Set various bindings for emacs mode. set editing-mode emacs $if mode=emacs Meta-Control-h: backward-kill-word Text after the function name is ignored # # Arrow keys in keypad mode # #"\M-OD": backward-char #"\M-OC": forward-char #"\M-OA": previous-history #"\M-OB": next-history # # Arrow keys in ANSI mode # "\M-[D": backward-char "\M-[C": forward-char "\M-[A": previous-history "\M-[B": next-history # # Arrow keys in 8 bit keypad mode # #"\M-\C-OD": backward-char #"\M-\C-OC": forward-char #"\M-\C-OA": previous-history #"\M-\C-OB": next-history # # Arrow keys in 8 bit ANSI mode # #"\M-\C-[D": backward-char #"\M-\C-[C": forward-char #"\M-\C-[A": previous-history #"\M-\C-[B": next-history C-q: quoted-insert $endif # An old-style binding. This happens to be the default. TAB: complete # Macros that are convenient for shell interaction $if Bash # edit the path "\C-xp": "PATH=${PATH}\e\C-e\C-a\ef\C-f" # prepare to type a quoted word -- # insert open and close double quotes # and move to just after the open quote "\C-x\"": "\"\"\C-b" # insert a backslash (testing backslash escapes # in sequences and macros) "\C-x\\": "\\" # Quote the current or previous word "\C-xq": "\eb\"\ef\"" # Add a binding to refresh the line, which is unbound "\C-xr": redraw-current-line # Edit variable on current line. "\M-\C-v": "\C-a\C-k$\C-y\M-\C-e\C-a\C-y=" $endif # use a visible bell if one is available set bell-style visible # don't strip characters to 7 bits when reading set input-meta on # allow iso-latin1 characters to be inserted rather # than converted to prefix-meta sequences set convert-meta off # display characters with the eighth bit set directly # rather than as meta-prefixed characters set output-meta on # if there are 150 or more possible completions for a word, # ask whether or not the user wants to see all of them set completion-query-items 150 # For FTP $if Ftp "\C-xg": "get \M-?" "\C-xt": "put \M-?" "\M-.": yank-last-arg $endif </pre></div> <hr> <span id="Bindable-Readline-Commands"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Readline-vi-Mode" accesskey="n" rel="next">Readline vi Mode</a>, Previous: <a href="#Readline-Init-File" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Readline Init File</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command Line Editing</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bindable-Readline-Commands-1"></span><h3 class="section">8.4 Bindable Readline Commands</h3> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Commands-For-Moving" accesskey="1">Commands For Moving</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Moving about the line. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Commands-For-History" accesskey="2">Commands For History</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Getting at previous lines. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Commands-For-Text" accesskey="3">Commands For Text</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Commands for changing text. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Commands-For-Killing" accesskey="4">Commands For Killing</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Commands for killing and yanking. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Numeric-Arguments" accesskey="5">Numeric Arguments</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Specifying numeric arguments, repeat counts. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Commands-For-Completion" accesskey="6">Commands For Completion</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Getting Readline to do the typing for you. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Keyboard-Macros" accesskey="7">Keyboard Macros</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Saving and re-executing typed characters </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands" accesskey="8">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Other miscellaneous commands. </td></tr> </table> <p>This section describes Readline commands that may be bound to key sequences. You can list your key bindings by executing <code>bind <span class="nolinebreak">-P</span></code><!-- /@w --> or, for a more terse format, suitable for an <var>inputrc</var> file, <code>bind <span class="nolinebreak">-p</span></code><!-- /@w -->. (See <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>.) Command names without an accompanying key sequence are unbound by default. </p> <p>In the following descriptions, <em>point</em> refers to the current cursor position, and <em>mark</em> refers to a cursor position saved by the <code>set-mark</code> command. The text between the point and mark is referred to as the <em>region</em>. </p> <hr> <span id="Commands-For-Moving"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Commands-For-History" accesskey="n" rel="next">Commands For History</a>, Up: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bindable Readline Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Commands-For-Moving-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.4.1 Commands For Moving</h4> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>beginning-of-line (C-a)</code> <span id="index-beginning_002dof_002dline-_0028C_002da_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move to the start of the current line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>end-of-line (C-e)</code> <span id="index-end_002dof_002dline-_0028C_002de_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move to the end of the line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>forward-char (C-f)</code> <span id="index-forward_002dchar-_0028C_002df_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move forward a character. </p> </dd> <dt><code>backward-char (C-b)</code> <span id="index-backward_002dchar-_0028C_002db_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move back a character. </p> </dd> <dt><code>forward-word (M-f)</code> <span id="index-forward_002dword-_0028M_002df_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move forward to the end of the next word. Words are composed of letters and digits. </p> </dd> <dt><code>backward-word (M-b)</code> <span id="index-backward_002dword-_0028M_002db_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move back to the start of the current or previous word. Words are composed of letters and digits. </p> </dd> <dt><code>shell-forward-word (M-C-f)</code> <span id="index-shell_002dforward_002dword-_0028M_002dC_002df_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move forward to the end of the next word. Words are delimited by non-quoted shell metacharacters. </p> </dd> <dt><code>shell-backward-word (M-C-b)</code> <span id="index-shell_002dbackward_002dword-_0028M_002dC_002db_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move back to the start of the current or previous word. Words are delimited by non-quoted shell metacharacters. </p> </dd> <dt><code>previous-screen-line ()</code> <span id="index-previous_002dscreen_002dline-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt to move point to the same physical screen column on the previous physical screen line. This will not have the desired effect if the current Readline line does not take up more than one physical line or if point is not greater than the length of the prompt plus the screen width. </p> </dd> <dt><code>next-screen-line ()</code> <span id="index-next_002dscreen_002dline-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt to move point to the same physical screen column on the next physical screen line. This will not have the desired effect if the current Readline line does not take up more than one physical line or if the length of the current Readline line is not greater than the length of the prompt plus the screen width. </p> </dd> <dt><code>clear-display (M-C-l)</code> <span id="index-clear_002ddisplay-_0028M_002dC_002dl_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Clear the screen and, if possible, the terminal’s scrollback buffer, then redraw the current line, leaving the current line at the top of the screen. </p> </dd> <dt><code>clear-screen (C-l)</code> <span id="index-clear_002dscreen-_0028C_002dl_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Clear the screen, then redraw the current line, leaving the current line at the top of the screen. </p> </dd> <dt><code>redraw-current-line ()</code> <span id="index-redraw_002dcurrent_002dline-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Refresh the current line. By default, this is unbound. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Commands-For-History"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Commands-For-Text" accesskey="n" rel="next">Commands For Text</a>, Previous: <a href="#Commands-For-Moving" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Commands For Moving</a>, Up: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bindable Readline Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Commands-For-Manipulating-The-History"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.4.2 Commands For Manipulating The History</h4> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>accept-line (Newline or Return)</code> <span id="index-accept_002dline-_0028Newline-or-Return_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Accept the line regardless of where the cursor is. If this line is non-empty, add it to the history list according to the setting of the <code>HISTCONTROL</code> and <code>HISTIGNORE</code> variables. If this line is a modified history line, then restore the history line to its original state. </p> </dd> <dt><code>previous-history (C-p)</code> <span id="index-previous_002dhistory-_0028C_002dp_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move ‘back’ through the history list, fetching the previous command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>next-history (C-n)</code> <span id="index-next_002dhistory-_0028C_002dn_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move ‘forward’ through the history list, fetching the next command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>beginning-of-history (M-<)</code> <span id="index-beginning_002dof_002dhistory-_0028M_002d_003c_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move to the first line in the history. </p> </dd> <dt><code>end-of-history (M->)</code> <span id="index-end_002dof_002dhistory-_0028M_002d_003e_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Move to the end of the input history, i.e., the line currently being entered. </p> </dd> <dt><code>reverse-search-history (C-r)</code> <span id="index-reverse_002dsearch_002dhistory-_0028C_002dr_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Search backward starting at the current line and moving ‘up’ through the history as necessary. This is an incremental search. This command sets the region to the matched text and activates the mark. </p> </dd> <dt><code>forward-search-history (C-s)</code> <span id="index-forward_002dsearch_002dhistory-_0028C_002ds_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Search forward starting at the current line and moving ‘down’ through the history as necessary. This is an incremental search. This command sets the region to the matched text and activates the mark. </p> </dd> <dt><code>non-incremental-reverse-search-history (M-p)</code> <span id="index-non_002dincremental_002dreverse_002dsearch_002dhistory-_0028M_002dp_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Search backward starting at the current line and moving ‘up’ through the history as necessary using a non-incremental search for a string supplied by the user. The search string may match anywhere in a history line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>non-incremental-forward-search-history (M-n)</code> <span id="index-non_002dincremental_002dforward_002dsearch_002dhistory-_0028M_002dn_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Search forward starting at the current line and moving ‘down’ through the history as necessary using a non-incremental search for a string supplied by the user. The search string may match anywhere in a history line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>history-search-forward ()</code> <span id="index-history_002dsearch_002dforward-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Search forward through the history for the string of characters between the start of the current line and the point. The search string must match at the beginning of a history line. This is a non-incremental search. By default, this command is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>history-search-backward ()</code> <span id="index-history_002dsearch_002dbackward-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Search backward through the history for the string of characters between the start of the current line and the point. The search string must match at the beginning of a history line. This is a non-incremental search. By default, this command is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>history-substring-search-forward ()</code> <span id="index-history_002dsubstring_002dsearch_002dforward-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Search forward through the history for the string of characters between the start of the current line and the point. The search string may match anywhere in a history line. This is a non-incremental search. By default, this command is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>history-substring-search-backward ()</code> <span id="index-history_002dsubstring_002dsearch_002dbackward-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Search backward through the history for the string of characters between the start of the current line and the point. The search string may match anywhere in a history line. This is a non-incremental search. By default, this command is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>yank-nth-arg (M-C-y)</code> <span id="index-yank_002dnth_002darg-_0028M_002dC_002dy_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Insert the first argument to the previous command (usually the second word on the previous line) at point. With an argument <var>n</var>, insert the <var>n</var>th word from the previous command (the words in the previous command begin with word 0). A negative argument inserts the <var>n</var>th word from the end of the previous command. Once the argument <var>n</var> is computed, the argument is extracted as if the ‘<samp>!<var>n</var></samp>’ history expansion had been specified. </p> </dd> <dt><code>yank-last-arg (M-. or M-_)</code> <span id="index-yank_002dlast_002darg-_0028M_002d_002e-or-M_002d_005f_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Insert last argument to the previous command (the last word of the previous history entry). With a numeric argument, behave exactly like <code>yank-nth-arg</code>. Successive calls to <code>yank-last-arg</code> move back through the history list, inserting the last word (or the word specified by the argument to the first call) of each line in turn. Any numeric argument supplied to these successive calls determines the direction to move through the history. A negative argument switches the direction through the history (back or forward). The history expansion facilities are used to extract the last argument, as if the ‘<samp>!$</samp>’ history expansion had been specified. </p> </dd> <dt><code>operate-and-get-next (C-o)</code> <span id="index-operate_002dand_002dget_002dnext-_0028C_002do_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Accept the current line for return to the calling application as if a newline had been entered, and fetch the next line relative to the current line from the history for editing. A numeric argument, if supplied, specifies the history entry to use instead of the current line. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Commands-For-Text"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Commands-For-Killing" accesskey="n" rel="next">Commands For Killing</a>, Previous: <a href="#Commands-For-History" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Commands For History</a>, Up: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bindable Readline Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Commands-For-Changing-Text"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.4.3 Commands For Changing Text</h4> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code><i>end-of-file</i> (usually C-d)</code> <span id="index-end_002dof_002dfile-_0028usually-C_002dd_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The character indicating end-of-file as set, for example, by <code>stty</code>. If this character is read when there are no characters on the line, and point is at the beginning of the line, Readline interprets it as the end of input and returns <small>EOF</small>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>delete-char (C-d)</code> <span id="index-delete_002dchar-_0028C_002dd_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Delete the character at point. If this function is bound to the same character as the tty <small>EOF</small> character, as <kbd>C-d</kbd> commonly is, see above for the effects. </p> </dd> <dt><code>backward-delete-char (Rubout)</code> <span id="index-backward_002ddelete_002dchar-_0028Rubout_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Delete the character behind the cursor. A numeric argument means to kill the characters instead of deleting them. </p> </dd> <dt><code>forward-backward-delete-char ()</code> <span id="index-forward_002dbackward_002ddelete_002dchar-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Delete the character under the cursor, unless the cursor is at the end of the line, in which case the character behind the cursor is deleted. By default, this is not bound to a key. </p> </dd> <dt><code>quoted-insert (C-q or C-v)</code> <span id="index-quoted_002dinsert-_0028C_002dq-or-C_002dv_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Add the next character typed to the line verbatim. This is how to insert key sequences like <kbd>C-q</kbd>, for example. </p> </dd> <dt><code>self-insert (a, b, A, 1, !, …)</code> <span id="index-self_002dinsert-_0028a_002c-b_002c-A_002c-1_002c-_0021_002c-_2026_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Insert yourself. </p> </dd> <dt><code>bracketed-paste-begin ()</code> <span id="index-bracketed_002dpaste_002dbegin-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This function is intended to be bound to the "bracketed paste" escape sequence sent by some terminals, and such a binding is assigned by default. It allows Readline to insert the pasted text as a single unit without treating each character as if it had been read from the keyboard. The characters are inserted as if each one was bound to <code>self-insert</code> instead of executing any editing commands. </p> <p>Bracketed paste sets the region (the characters between point and the mark) to the inserted text. It uses the concept of an <em>active mark</em>: when the mark is active, Readline redisplay uses the terminal’s standout mode to denote the region. </p> </dd> <dt><code>transpose-chars (C-t)</code> <span id="index-transpose_002dchars-_0028C_002dt_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Drag the character before the cursor forward over the character at the cursor, moving the cursor forward as well. If the insertion point is at the end of the line, then this transposes the last two characters of the line. Negative arguments have no effect. </p> </dd> <dt><code>transpose-words (M-t)</code> <span id="index-transpose_002dwords-_0028M_002dt_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Drag the word before point past the word after point, moving point past that word as well. If the insertion point is at the end of the line, this transposes the last two words on the line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>upcase-word (M-u)</code> <span id="index-upcase_002dword-_0028M_002du_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Uppercase the current (or following) word. With a negative argument, uppercase the previous word, but do not move the cursor. </p> </dd> <dt><code>downcase-word (M-l)</code> <span id="index-downcase_002dword-_0028M_002dl_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Lowercase the current (or following) word. With a negative argument, lowercase the previous word, but do not move the cursor. </p> </dd> <dt><code>capitalize-word (M-c)</code> <span id="index-capitalize_002dword-_0028M_002dc_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Capitalize the current (or following) word. With a negative argument, capitalize the previous word, but do not move the cursor. </p> </dd> <dt><code>overwrite-mode ()</code> <span id="index-overwrite_002dmode-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Toggle overwrite mode. With an explicit positive numeric argument, switches to overwrite mode. With an explicit non-positive numeric argument, switches to insert mode. This command affects only <code>emacs</code> mode; <code>vi</code> mode does overwrite differently. Each call to <code>readline()</code> starts in insert mode. </p> <p>In overwrite mode, characters bound to <code>self-insert</code> replace the text at point rather than pushing the text to the right. Characters bound to <code>backward-delete-char</code> replace the character before point with a space. </p> <p>By default, this command is unbound. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Commands-For-Killing"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Numeric-Arguments" accesskey="n" rel="next">Numeric Arguments</a>, Previous: <a href="#Commands-For-Text" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Commands For Text</a>, Up: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bindable Readline Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Killing-And-Yanking"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.4.4 Killing And Yanking</h4> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>kill-line (C-k)</code> <span id="index-kill_002dline-_0028C_002dk_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill the text from point to the end of the line. With a negative numeric argument, kill backward from the cursor to the beginning of the current line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>backward-kill-line (C-x Rubout)</code> <span id="index-backward_002dkill_002dline-_0028C_002dx-Rubout_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill backward from the cursor to the beginning of the current line. With a negative numeric argument, kill forward from the cursor to the end of the current line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>unix-line-discard (C-u)</code> <span id="index-unix_002dline_002ddiscard-_0028C_002du_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill backward from the cursor to the beginning of the current line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>kill-whole-line ()</code> <span id="index-kill_002dwhole_002dline-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill all characters on the current line, no matter where point is. By default, this is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>kill-word (M-d)</code> <span id="index-kill_002dword-_0028M_002dd_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill from point to the end of the current word, or if between words, to the end of the next word. Word boundaries are the same as <code>forward-word</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>backward-kill-word (M-<span class="key">DEL</span>)</code> <span id="index-backward_002dkill_002dword-_0028M_002dDEL_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill the word behind point. Word boundaries are the same as <code>backward-word</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>shell-kill-word (M-C-d)</code> <span id="index-shell_002dkill_002dword-_0028M_002dC_002dd_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill from point to the end of the current word, or if between words, to the end of the next word. Word boundaries are the same as <code>shell-forward-word</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>shell-backward-kill-word ()</code> <span id="index-shell_002dbackward_002dkill_002dword-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill the word behind point. Word boundaries are the same as <code>shell-backward-word</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>shell-transpose-words (M-C-t)</code> <span id="index-shell_002dtranspose_002dwords-_0028M_002dC_002dt_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Drag the word before point past the word after point, moving point past that word as well. If the insertion point is at the end of the line, this transposes the last two words on the line. Word boundaries are the same as <code>shell-forward-word</code> and <code>shell-backward-word</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>unix-word-rubout (C-w)</code> <span id="index-unix_002dword_002drubout-_0028C_002dw_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill the word behind point, using white space as a word boundary. The killed text is saved on the kill-ring. </p> </dd> <dt><code>unix-filename-rubout ()</code> <span id="index-unix_002dfilename_002drubout-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill the word behind point, using white space and the slash character as the word boundaries. The killed text is saved on the kill-ring. </p> </dd> <dt><code>delete-horizontal-space ()</code> <span id="index-delete_002dhorizontal_002dspace-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Delete all spaces and tabs around point. By default, this is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>kill-region ()</code> <span id="index-kill_002dregion-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Kill the text in the current region. By default, this command is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>copy-region-as-kill ()</code> <span id="index-copy_002dregion_002das_002dkill-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Copy the text in the region to the kill buffer, so it can be yanked right away. By default, this command is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>copy-backward-word ()</code> <span id="index-copy_002dbackward_002dword-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Copy the word before point to the kill buffer. The word boundaries are the same as <code>backward-word</code>. By default, this command is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>copy-forward-word ()</code> <span id="index-copy_002dforward_002dword-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Copy the word following point to the kill buffer. The word boundaries are the same as <code>forward-word</code>. By default, this command is unbound. </p> </dd> <dt><code>yank (C-y)</code> <span id="index-yank-_0028C_002dy_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Yank the top of the kill ring into the buffer at point. </p> </dd> <dt><code>yank-pop (M-y)</code> <span id="index-yank_002dpop-_0028M_002dy_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Rotate the kill-ring, and yank the new top. You can only do this if the prior command is <code>yank</code> or <code>yank-pop</code>. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Numeric-Arguments"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Commands-For-Completion" accesskey="n" rel="next">Commands For Completion</a>, Previous: <a href="#Commands-For-Killing" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Commands For Killing</a>, Up: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bindable Readline Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Specifying-Numeric-Arguments"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.4.5 Specifying Numeric Arguments</h4> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>digit-argument (<kbd>M-0</kbd>, <kbd>M-1</kbd>, … <kbd>M--</kbd>)</code> <span id="index-digit_002dargument-_0028M_002d0_002c-M_002d1_002c-_2026-M_002d_002d_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Add this digit to the argument already accumulating, or start a new argument. <kbd>M--</kbd> starts a negative argument. </p> </dd> <dt><code>universal-argument ()</code> <span id="index-universal_002dargument-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>This is another way to specify an argument. If this command is followed by one or more digits, optionally with a leading minus sign, those digits define the argument. If the command is followed by digits, executing <code>universal-argument</code> again ends the numeric argument, but is otherwise ignored. As a special case, if this command is immediately followed by a character that is neither a digit nor minus sign, the argument count for the next command is multiplied by four. The argument count is initially one, so executing this function the first time makes the argument count four, a second time makes the argument count sixteen, and so on. By default, this is not bound to a key. </p></dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Commands-For-Completion"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Keyboard-Macros" accesskey="n" rel="next">Keyboard Macros</a>, Previous: <a href="#Numeric-Arguments" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Numeric Arguments</a>, Up: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bindable Readline Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Letting-Readline-Type-For-You"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.4.6 Letting Readline Type For You</h4> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>complete (<span class="key">TAB</span>)</code> <span id="index-complete-_0028TAB_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt to perform completion on the text before point. The actual completion performed is application-specific. Bash attempts completion treating the text as a variable (if the text begins with ‘<samp>$</samp>’), username (if the text begins with ‘<samp>~</samp>’), hostname (if the text begins with ‘<samp>@</samp>’), or command (including aliases and functions) in turn. If none of these produces a match, filename completion is attempted. </p> </dd> <dt><code>possible-completions (M-?)</code> <span id="index-possible_002dcompletions-_0028M_002d_003f_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>List the possible completions of the text before point. When displaying completions, Readline sets the number of columns used for display to the value of <code>completion-display-width</code>, the value of the environment variable <code>COLUMNS</code>, or the screen width, in that order. </p> </dd> <dt><code>insert-completions (M-*)</code> <span id="index-insert_002dcompletions-_0028M_002d_002a_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Insert all completions of the text before point that would have been generated by <code>possible-completions</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>menu-complete ()</code> <span id="index-menu_002dcomplete-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Similar to <code>complete</code>, but replaces the word to be completed with a single match from the list of possible completions. Repeated execution of <code>menu-complete</code> steps through the list of possible completions, inserting each match in turn. At the end of the list of completions, the bell is rung (subject to the setting of <code>bell-style</code>) and the original text is restored. An argument of <var>n</var> moves <var>n</var> positions forward in the list of matches; a negative argument may be used to move backward through the list. This command is intended to be bound to <tt class="key">TAB</tt>, but is unbound by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>menu-complete-backward ()</code> <span id="index-menu_002dcomplete_002dbackward-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Identical to <code>menu-complete</code>, but moves backward through the list of possible completions, as if <code>menu-complete</code> had been given a negative argument. </p> </dd> <dt><code>delete-char-or-list ()</code> <span id="index-delete_002dchar_002dor_002dlist-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Deletes the character under the cursor if not at the beginning or end of the line (like <code>delete-char</code>). If at the end of the line, behaves identically to <code>possible-completions</code>. This command is unbound by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>complete-filename (M-/)</code> <span id="index-complete_002dfilename-_0028M_002d_002f_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt filename completion on the text before point. </p> </dd> <dt><code>possible-filename-completions (C-x /)</code> <span id="index-possible_002dfilename_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_002f_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a filename. </p> </dd> <dt><code>complete-username (M-~)</code> <span id="index-complete_002dusername-_0028M_002d_007e_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a username. </p> </dd> <dt><code>possible-username-completions (C-x ~)</code> <span id="index-possible_002dusername_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_007e_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a username. </p> </dd> <dt><code>complete-variable (M-$)</code> <span id="index-complete_002dvariable-_0028M_002d_0024_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a shell variable. </p> </dd> <dt><code>possible-variable-completions (C-x $)</code> <span id="index-possible_002dvariable_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_0024_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a shell variable. </p> </dd> <dt><code>complete-hostname (M-@)</code> <span id="index-complete_002dhostname-_0028M_002d_0040_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a hostname. </p> </dd> <dt><code>possible-hostname-completions (C-x @)</code> <span id="index-possible_002dhostname_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_0040_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a hostname. </p> </dd> <dt><code>complete-command (M-!)</code> <span id="index-complete_002dcommand-_0028M_002d_0021_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a command name. Command completion attempts to match the text against aliases, reserved words, shell functions, shell builtins, and finally executable filenames, in that order. </p> </dd> <dt><code>possible-command-completions (C-x !)</code> <span id="index-possible_002dcommand_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_0021_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>List the possible completions of the text before point, treating it as a command name. </p> </dd> <dt><code>dynamic-complete-history (M-<span class="key">TAB</span>)</code> <span id="index-dynamic_002dcomplete_002dhistory-_0028M_002dTAB_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt completion on the text before point, comparing the text against lines from the history list for possible completion matches. </p> </dd> <dt><code>dabbrev-expand ()</code> <span id="index-dabbrev_002dexpand-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Attempt menu completion on the text before point, comparing the text against lines from the history list for possible completion matches. </p> </dd> <dt><code>complete-into-braces (M-{)</code> <span id="index-complete_002dinto_002dbraces-_0028M_002d_007b_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Perform filename completion and insert the list of possible completions enclosed within braces so the list is available to the shell (see <a href="#Brace-Expansion">Brace Expansion</a>). </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Keyboard-Macros"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Miscellaneous Commands</a>, Previous: <a href="#Commands-For-Completion" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Commands For Completion</a>, Up: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bindable Readline Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Keyboard-Macros-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.4.7 Keyboard Macros</h4> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>start-kbd-macro (C-x ()</code> <span id="index-start_002dkbd_002dmacro-_0028C_002dx-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Begin saving the characters typed into the current keyboard macro. </p> </dd> <dt><code>end-kbd-macro (C-x ))</code> <span id="index-end_002dkbd_002dmacro-_0028C_002dx-_0029_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Stop saving the characters typed into the current keyboard macro and save the definition. </p> </dd> <dt><code>call-last-kbd-macro (C-x e)</code> <span id="index-call_002dlast_002dkbd_002dmacro-_0028C_002dx-e_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Re-execute the last keyboard macro defined, by making the characters in the macro appear as if typed at the keyboard. </p> </dd> <dt><code>print-last-kbd-macro ()</code> <span id="index-print_002dlast_002dkbd_002dmacro-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Print the last keboard macro defined in a format suitable for the <var>inputrc</var> file. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Miscellaneous-Commands"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Keyboard-Macros" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Keyboard Macros</a>, Up: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="u" rel="up">Bindable Readline Commands</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Some-Miscellaneous-Commands"></span><h4 class="subsection">8.4.8 Some Miscellaneous Commands</h4> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>re-read-init-file (C-x C-r)</code> <span id="index-re_002dread_002dinit_002dfile-_0028C_002dx-C_002dr_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Read in the contents of the <var>inputrc</var> file, and incorporate any bindings or variable assignments found there. </p> </dd> <dt><code>abort (C-g)</code> <span id="index-abort-_0028C_002dg_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Abort the current editing command and ring the terminal’s bell (subject to the setting of <code>bell-style</code>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>do-lowercase-version (M-A, M-B, M-<var>x</var>, …)</code> <span id="index-do_002dlowercase_002dversion-_0028M_002dA_002c-M_002dB_002c-M_002dx_002c-_2026_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>If the metafied character <var>x</var> is upper case, run the command that is bound to the corresponding metafied lower case character. The behavior is undefined if <var>x</var> is already lower case. </p> </dd> <dt><code>prefix-meta (<span class="key">ESC</span>)</code> <span id="index-prefix_002dmeta-_0028ESC_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Metafy the next character typed. This is for keyboards without a meta key. Typing ‘<samp><span class="key">ESC</span> f</samp>’ is equivalent to typing <kbd>M-f</kbd>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>undo (C-_ or C-x C-u)</code> <span id="index-undo-_0028C_002d_005f-or-C_002dx-C_002du_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Incremental undo, separately remembered for each line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>revert-line (M-r)</code> <span id="index-revert_002dline-_0028M_002dr_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Undo all changes made to this line. This is like executing the <code>undo</code> command enough times to get back to the beginning. </p> </dd> <dt><code>tilde-expand (M-&)</code> <span id="index-tilde_002dexpand-_0028M_002d_0026_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Perform tilde expansion on the current word. </p> </dd> <dt><code>set-mark (C-@)</code> <span id="index-set_002dmark-_0028C_002d_0040_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Set the mark to the point. If a numeric argument is supplied, the mark is set to that position. </p> </dd> <dt><code>exchange-point-and-mark (C-x C-x)</code> <span id="index-exchange_002dpoint_002dand_002dmark-_0028C_002dx-C_002dx_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Swap the point with the mark. The current cursor position is set to the saved position, and the old cursor position is saved as the mark. </p> </dd> <dt><code>character-search (C-])</code> <span id="index-character_002dsearch-_0028C_002d_005d_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A character is read and point is moved to the next occurrence of that character. A negative count searches for previous occurrences. </p> </dd> <dt><code>character-search-backward (M-C-])</code> <span id="index-character_002dsearch_002dbackward-_0028M_002dC_002d_005d_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A character is read and point is moved to the previous occurrence of that character. A negative count searches for subsequent occurrences. </p> </dd> <dt><code>skip-csi-sequence ()</code> <span id="index-skip_002dcsi_002dsequence-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Read enough characters to consume a multi-key sequence such as those defined for keys like Home and End. Such sequences begin with a Control Sequence Indicator (CSI), usually ESC-[. If this sequence is bound to "\e[", keys producing such sequences will have no effect unless explicitly bound to a readline command, instead of inserting stray characters into the editing buffer. This is unbound by default, but usually bound to ESC-[. </p> </dd> <dt><code>insert-comment (M-#)</code> <span id="index-insert_002dcomment-_0028M_002d_0023_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Without a numeric argument, the value of the <code>comment-begin</code> variable is inserted at the beginning of the current line. If a numeric argument is supplied, this command acts as a toggle: if the characters at the beginning of the line do not match the value of <code>comment-begin</code>, the value is inserted, otherwise the characters in <code>comment-begin</code> are deleted from the beginning of the line. In either case, the line is accepted as if a newline had been typed. The default value of <code>comment-begin</code> causes this command to make the current line a shell comment. If a numeric argument causes the comment character to be removed, the line will be executed by the shell. </p> </dd> <dt><code>dump-functions ()</code> <span id="index-dump_002dfunctions-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Print all of the functions and their key bindings to the Readline output stream. If a numeric argument is supplied, the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part of an <var>inputrc</var> file. This command is unbound by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>dump-variables ()</code> <span id="index-dump_002dvariables-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Print all of the settable variables and their values to the Readline output stream. If a numeric argument is supplied, the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part of an <var>inputrc</var> file. This command is unbound by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>dump-macros ()</code> <span id="index-dump_002dmacros-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Print all of the Readline key sequences bound to macros and the strings they output. If a numeric argument is supplied, the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part of an <var>inputrc</var> file. This command is unbound by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>glob-complete-word (M-g)</code> <span id="index-glob_002dcomplete_002dword-_0028M_002dg_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The word before point is treated as a pattern for pathname expansion, with an asterisk implicitly appended. This pattern is used to generate a list of matching file names for possible completions. </p> </dd> <dt><code>glob-expand-word (C-x *)</code> <span id="index-glob_002dexpand_002dword-_0028C_002dx-_002a_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The word before point is treated as a pattern for pathname expansion, and the list of matching file names is inserted, replacing the word. If a numeric argument is supplied, a ‘<samp>*</samp>’ is appended before pathname expansion. </p> </dd> <dt><code>glob-list-expansions (C-x g)</code> <span id="index-glob_002dlist_002dexpansions-_0028C_002dx-g_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>The list of expansions that would have been generated by <code>glob-expand-word</code> is displayed, and the line is redrawn. If a numeric argument is supplied, a ‘<samp>*</samp>’ is appended before pathname expansion. </p> </dd> <dt><code>display-shell-version (C-x C-v)</code> <span id="index-display_002dshell_002dversion-_0028C_002dx-C_002dv_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Display version information about the current instance of Bash. </p> </dd> <dt><code>shell-expand-line (M-C-e)</code> <span id="index-shell_002dexpand_002dline-_0028M_002dC_002de_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Expand the line as the shell does. This performs alias and history expansion as well as all of the shell word expansions (see <a href="#Shell-Expansions">Shell Expansions</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>history-expand-line (M-^)</code> <span id="index-history_002dexpand_002dline-_0028M_002d_005e_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Perform history expansion on the current line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>magic-space ()</code> <span id="index-magic_002dspace-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Perform history expansion on the current line and insert a space (see <a href="#History-Interaction">History Interaction</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>alias-expand-line ()</code> <span id="index-alias_002dexpand_002dline-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Perform alias expansion on the current line (see <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>history-and-alias-expand-line ()</code> <span id="index-history_002dand_002dalias_002dexpand_002dline-_0028_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Perform history and alias expansion on the current line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>insert-last-argument (M-. or M-_)</code> <span id="index-insert_002dlast_002dargument-_0028M_002d_002e-or-M_002d_005f_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>A synonym for <code>yank-last-arg</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>edit-and-execute-command (C-x C-e)</code> <span id="index-edit_002dand_002dexecute_002dcommand-_0028C_002dx-C_002de_0029"></span> </dt> <dd><p>Invoke an editor on the current command line, and execute the result as shell commands. Bash attempts to invoke <code>$VISUAL</code>, <code>$EDITOR</code>, and <code>emacs</code> as the editor, in that order. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Readline-vi-Mode"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Programmable-Completion" accesskey="n" rel="next">Programmable Completion</a>, Previous: <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bindable Readline Commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command Line Editing</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Readline-vi-Mode-1"></span><h3 class="section">8.5 Readline vi Mode</h3> <p>While the Readline library does not have a full set of <code>vi</code> editing functions, it does contain enough to allow simple editing of the line. The Readline <code>vi</code> mode behaves as specified in the <small>POSIX</small> standard. </p> <p>In order to switch interactively between <code>emacs</code> and <code>vi</code> editing modes, use the ‘<samp>set -o emacs</samp>’ and ‘<samp>set -o vi</samp>’ commands (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). The Readline default is <code>emacs</code> mode. </p> <p>When you enter a line in <code>vi</code> mode, you are already placed in ‘insertion’ mode, as if you had typed an ‘<samp>i</samp>’. Pressing <tt class="key">ESC</tt> switches you into ‘command’ mode, where you can edit the text of the line with the standard <code>vi</code> movement keys, move to previous history lines with ‘<samp>k</samp>’ and subsequent lines with ‘<samp>j</samp>’, and so forth. </p> <hr> <span id="Programmable-Completion"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins" accesskey="n" rel="next">Programmable Completion Builtins</a>, Previous: <a href="#Readline-vi-Mode" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Readline vi Mode</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command Line Editing</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Programmable-Completion-1"></span><h3 class="section">8.6 Programmable Completion</h3> <span id="index-programmable-completion"></span> <p>When word completion is attempted for an argument to a command for which a completion specification (a <var>compspec</var>) has been defined using the <code>complete</code> builtin (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins">Programmable Completion Builtins</a>), the programmable completion facilities are invoked. </p> <p>First, the command name is identified. If a compspec has been defined for that command, the compspec is used to generate the list of possible completions for the word. If the command word is the empty string (completion attempted at the beginning of an empty line), any compspec defined with the <samp>-E</samp> option to <code>complete</code> is used. If the command word is a full pathname, a compspec for the full pathname is searched for first. If no compspec is found for the full pathname, an attempt is made to find a compspec for the portion following the final slash. If those searches do not result in a compspec, any compspec defined with the <samp>-D</samp> option to <code>complete</code> is used as the default. If there is no default compspec, Bash attempts alias expansion on the command word as a final resort, and attempts to find a compspec for the command word from any successful expansion </p> <p>Once a compspec has been found, it is used to generate the list of matching words. If a compspec is not found, the default Bash completion described above (see <a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a>) is performed. </p> <p>First, the actions specified by the compspec are used. Only matches which are prefixed by the word being completed are returned. When the <samp>-f</samp> or <samp>-d</samp> option is used for filename or directory name completion, the shell variable <code>FIGNORE</code> is used to filter the matches. See <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>, for a description of <code>FIGNORE</code>. </p> <p>Any completions specified by a filename expansion pattern to the <samp>-G</samp> option are generated next. The words generated by the pattern need not match the word being completed. The <code>GLOBIGNORE</code> shell variable is not used to filter the matches, but the <code>FIGNORE</code> shell variable is used. </p> <p>Next, the string specified as the argument to the <samp>-W</samp> option is considered. The string is first split using the characters in the <code>IFS</code> special variable as delimiters. Shell quoting is honored within the string, in order to provide a mechanism for the words to contain shell metacharacters or characters in the value of <code>IFS</code>. Each word is then expanded using brace expansion, tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion, as described above (see <a href="#Shell-Expansions">Shell Expansions</a>). The results are split using the rules described above (see <a href="#Word-Splitting">Word Splitting</a>). The results of the expansion are prefix-matched against the word being completed, and the matching words become the possible completions. </p> <p>After these matches have been generated, any shell function or command specified with the <samp>-F</samp> and <samp>-C</samp> options is invoked. When the command or function is invoked, the <code>COMP_LINE</code>, <code>COMP_POINT</code>, <code>COMP_KEY</code>, and <code>COMP_TYPE</code> variables are assigned values as described above (see <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>). If a shell function is being invoked, the <code>COMP_WORDS</code> and <code>COMP_CWORD</code> variables are also set. When the function or command is invoked, the first argument ($1) is the name of the command whose arguments are being completed, the second argument ($2) is the word being completed, and the third argument ($3) is the word preceding the word being completed on the current command line. No filtering of the generated completions against the word being completed is performed; the function or command has complete freedom in generating the matches. </p> <p>Any function specified with <samp>-F</samp> is invoked first. The function may use any of the shell facilities, including the <code>compgen</code> and <code>compopt</code> builtins described below (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins">Programmable Completion Builtins</a>), to generate the matches. It must put the possible completions in the <code>COMPREPLY</code> array variable, one per array element. </p> <p>Next, any command specified with the <samp>-C</samp> option is invoked in an environment equivalent to command substitution. It should print a list of completions, one per line, to the standard output. Backslash may be used to escape a newline, if necessary. </p> <p>After all of the possible completions are generated, any filter specified with the <samp>-X</samp> option is applied to the list. The filter is a pattern as used for pathname expansion; a ‘<samp>&</samp>’ in the pattern is replaced with the text of the word being completed. A literal ‘<samp>&</samp>’ may be escaped with a backslash; the backslash is removed before attempting a match. Any completion that matches the pattern will be removed from the list. A leading ‘<samp>!</samp>’ negates the pattern; in this case any completion not matching the pattern will be removed. If the <code>nocasematch</code> shell option (see the description of <code>shopt</code> in <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>) is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alphabetic characters. </p> <p>Finally, any prefix and suffix specified with the <samp>-P</samp> and <samp>-S</samp> options are added to each member of the completion list, and the result is returned to the Readline completion code as the list of possible completions. </p> <p>If the previously-applied actions do not generate any matches, and the <samp>-o dirnames</samp> option was supplied to <code>complete</code> when the compspec was defined, directory name completion is attempted. </p> <p>If the <samp>-o plusdirs</samp> option was supplied to <code>complete</code> when the compspec was defined, directory name completion is attempted and any matches are added to the results of the other actions. </p> <p>By default, if a compspec is found, whatever it generates is returned to the completion code as the full set of possible completions. The default Bash completions are not attempted, and the Readline default of filename completion is disabled. If the <samp>-o bashdefault</samp> option was supplied to <code>complete</code> when the compspec was defined, the default Bash completions are attempted if the compspec generates no matches. If the <samp>-o default</samp> option was supplied to <code>complete</code> when the compspec was defined, Readline’s default completion will be performed if the compspec (and, if attempted, the default Bash completions) generate no matches. </p> <p>When a compspec indicates that directory name completion is desired, the programmable completion functions force Readline to append a slash to completed names which are symbolic links to directories, subject to the value of the <var>mark-directories</var> Readline variable, regardless of the setting of the <var>mark-symlinked-directories</var> Readline variable. </p> <p>There is some support for dynamically modifying completions. This is most useful when used in combination with a default completion specified with <samp>-D</samp>. It’s possible for shell functions executed as completion handlers to indicate that completion should be retried by returning an exit status of 124. If a shell function returns 124, and changes the compspec associated with the command on which completion is being attempted (supplied as the first argument when the function is executed), programmable completion restarts from the beginning, with an attempt to find a new compspec for that command. This allows a set of completions to be built dynamically as completion is attempted, rather than being loaded all at once. </p> <p>For instance, assuming that there is a library of compspecs, each kept in a file corresponding to the name of the command, the following default completion function would load completions dynamically: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">_completion_loader() { . "/etc/bash_completion.d/$1.sh" >/dev/null 2>&1 && return 124 } complete -D -F _completion_loader -o bashdefault -o default </pre></div> <hr> <span id="Programmable-Completion-Builtins"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#A-Programmable-Completion-Example" accesskey="n" rel="next">A Programmable Completion Example</a>, Previous: <a href="#Programmable-Completion" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Programmable Completion</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command Line Editing</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Programmable-Completion-Builtins-1"></span><h3 class="section">8.7 Programmable Completion Builtins</h3> <span id="index-completion-builtins"></span> <p>Three builtin commands are available to manipulate the programmable completion facilities: one to specify how the arguments to a particular command are to be completed, and two to modify the completion as it is happening. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>compgen</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-compgen"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example"><code>compgen [<var>option</var>] [<var>word</var>]</code> </pre></div> <p>Generate possible completion matches for <var>word</var> according to the <var>option</var>s, which may be any option accepted by the <code>complete</code> builtin with the exception of <samp>-p</samp> and <samp>-r</samp>, and write the matches to the standard output. When using the <samp>-F</samp> or <samp>-C</samp> options, the various shell variables set by the programmable completion facilities, while available, will not have useful values. </p> <p>The matches will be generated in the same way as if the programmable completion code had generated them directly from a completion specification with the same flags. If <var>word</var> is specified, only those completions matching <var>word</var> will be displayed. </p> <p>The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied, or no matches were generated. </p> </dd> <dt><code>complete</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-complete"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example"><code>complete [-abcdefgjksuv] [-o <var>comp-option</var>] [-DEI] [-A <var>action</var>] [-G <var>globpat</var>] [-W <var>wordlist</var>] [-F <var>function</var>] [-C <var>command</var>] [-X <var>filterpat</var>] [-P <var>prefix</var>] [-S <var>suffix</var>] <var>name</var> [<var>name</var> …]</code> <code>complete -pr [-DEI] [<var>name</var> …]</code> </pre></div> <p>Specify how arguments to each <var>name</var> should be completed. If the <samp>-p</samp> option is supplied, or if no options are supplied, existing completion specifications are printed in a way that allows them to be reused as input. The <samp>-r</samp> option removes a completion specification for each <var>name</var>, or, if no <var>name</var>s are supplied, all completion specifications. The <samp>-D</samp> option indicates that other supplied options and actions should apply to the “default” command completion; that is, completion attempted on a command for which no completion has previously been defined. The <samp>-E</samp> option indicates that other supplied options and actions should apply to “empty” command completion; that is, completion attempted on a blank line. The <samp>-I</samp> option indicates that other supplied options and actions should apply to completion on the initial non-assignment word on the line, or after a command delimiter such as ‘<samp>;</samp>’ or ‘<samp>|</samp>’, which is usually command name completion. If multiple options are supplied, the <samp>-D</samp> option takes precedence over <samp>-E</samp>, and both take precedence over <samp>-I</samp>. If any of <samp>-D</samp>, <samp>-E</samp>, or <samp>-I</samp> are supplied, any other <var>name</var> arguments are ignored; these completions only apply to the case specified by the option. </p> <p>The process of applying these completion specifications when word completion is attempted is described above (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>). </p> <p>Other options, if specified, have the following meanings. The arguments to the <samp>-G</samp>, <samp>-W</samp>, and <samp>-X</samp> options (and, if necessary, the <samp>-P</samp> and <samp>-S</samp> options) should be quoted to protect them from expansion before the <code>complete</code> builtin is invoked. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-o <var>comp-option</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>comp-option</var> controls several aspects of the compspec’s behavior beyond the simple generation of completions. <var>comp-option</var> may be one of: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>bashdefault</code></dt> <dd><p>Perform the rest of the default Bash completions if the compspec generates no matches. </p> </dd> <dt><code>default</code></dt> <dd><p>Use Readline’s default filename completion if the compspec generates no matches. </p> </dd> <dt><code>dirnames</code></dt> <dd><p>Perform directory name completion if the compspec generates no matches. </p> </dd> <dt><code>filenames</code></dt> <dd><p>Tell Readline that the compspec generates filenames, so it can perform any filename-specific processing (like adding a slash to directory names, quoting special characters, or suppressing trailing spaces). This option is intended to be used with shell functions specified with <samp>-F</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>noquote</code></dt> <dd><p>Tell Readline not to quote the completed words if they are filenames (quoting filenames is the default). </p> </dd> <dt><code>nosort</code></dt> <dd><p>Tell Readline not to sort the list of possible completions alphabetically. </p> </dd> <dt><code>nospace</code></dt> <dd><p>Tell Readline not to append a space (the default) to words completed at the end of the line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>plusdirs</code></dt> <dd><p>After any matches defined by the compspec are generated, directory name completion is attempted and any matches are added to the results of the other actions. </p> </dd> </dl> </dd> <dt><code>-A <var>action</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>action</var> may be one of the following to generate a list of possible completions: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>alias</code></dt> <dd><p>Alias names. May also be specified as <samp>-a</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>arrayvar</code></dt> <dd><p>Array variable names. </p> </dd> <dt><code>binding</code></dt> <dd><p>Readline key binding names (see <a href="#Bindable-Readline-Commands">Bindable Readline Commands</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>builtin</code></dt> <dd><p>Names of shell builtin commands. May also be specified as <samp>-b</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>command</code></dt> <dd><p>Command names. May also be specified as <samp>-c</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>directory</code></dt> <dd><p>Directory names. May also be specified as <samp>-d</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>disabled</code></dt> <dd><p>Names of disabled shell builtins. </p> </dd> <dt><code>enabled</code></dt> <dd><p>Names of enabled shell builtins. </p> </dd> <dt><code>export</code></dt> <dd><p>Names of exported shell variables. May also be specified as <samp>-e</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>file</code></dt> <dd><p>File names. May also be specified as <samp>-f</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>function</code></dt> <dd><p>Names of shell functions. </p> </dd> <dt><code>group</code></dt> <dd><p>Group names. May also be specified as <samp>-g</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>helptopic</code></dt> <dd><p>Help topics as accepted by the <code>help</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>hostname</code></dt> <dd><p>Hostnames, as taken from the file specified by the <code>HOSTFILE</code> shell variable (see <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>job</code></dt> <dd><p>Job names, if job control is active. May also be specified as <samp>-j</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>keyword</code></dt> <dd><p>Shell reserved words. May also be specified as <samp>-k</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>running</code></dt> <dd><p>Names of running jobs, if job control is active. </p> </dd> <dt><code>service</code></dt> <dd><p>Service names. May also be specified as <samp>-s</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>setopt</code></dt> <dd><p>Valid arguments for the <samp>-o</samp> option to the <code>set</code> builtin (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>shopt</code></dt> <dd><p>Shell option names as accepted by the <code>shopt</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>signal</code></dt> <dd><p>Signal names. </p> </dd> <dt><code>stopped</code></dt> <dd><p>Names of stopped jobs, if job control is active. </p> </dd> <dt><code>user</code></dt> <dd><p>User names. May also be specified as <samp>-u</samp>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>variable</code></dt> <dd><p>Names of all shell variables. May also be specified as <samp>-v</samp>. </p></dd> </dl> </dd> <dt><code>-C <var>command</var></code></dt> <dd><p><var>command</var> is executed in a subshell environment, and its output is used as the possible completions. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-F <var>function</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The shell function <var>function</var> is executed in the current shell environment. When it is executed, $1 is the name of the command whose arguments are being completed, $2 is the word being completed, and $3 is the word preceding the word being completed, as described above (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>). When it finishes, the possible completions are retrieved from the value of the <code>COMPREPLY</code> array variable. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-G <var>globpat</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The filename expansion pattern <var>globpat</var> is expanded to generate the possible completions. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-P <var>prefix</var></code></dt> <dd><p><var>prefix</var> is added at the beginning of each possible completion after all other options have been applied. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-S <var>suffix</var></code></dt> <dd><p><var>suffix</var> is appended to each possible completion after all other options have been applied. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-W <var>wordlist</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>wordlist</var> is split using the characters in the <code>IFS</code> special variable as delimiters, and each resultant word is expanded. The possible completions are the members of the resultant list which match the word being completed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-X <var>filterpat</var></code></dt> <dd><p><var>filterpat</var> is a pattern as used for filename expansion. It is applied to the list of possible completions generated by the preceding options and arguments, and each completion matching <var>filterpat</var> is removed from the list. A leading ‘<samp>!</samp>’ in <var>filterpat</var> negates the pattern; in this case, any completion not matching <var>filterpat</var> is removed. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied, an option other than <samp>-p</samp> or <samp>-r</samp> is supplied without a <var>name</var> argument, an attempt is made to remove a completion specification for a <var>name</var> for which no specification exists, or an error occurs adding a completion specification. </p> </dd> <dt><code>compopt</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-compopt"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example"><code>compopt</code> [-o <var>option</var>] [-DEI] [+o <var>option</var>] [<var>name</var>] </pre></div> <p>Modify completion options for each <var>name</var> according to the <var>option</var>s, or for the currently-executing completion if no <var>name</var>s are supplied. If no <var>option</var>s are given, display the completion options for each <var>name</var> or the current completion. The possible values of <var>option</var> are those valid for the <code>complete</code> builtin described above. The <samp>-D</samp> option indicates that other supplied options should apply to the “default” command completion; that is, completion attempted on a command for which no completion has previously been defined. The <samp>-E</samp> option indicates that other supplied options should apply to “empty” command completion; that is, completion attempted on a blank line. The <samp>-I</samp> option indicates that other supplied options should apply to completion on the initial non-assignment word on the line, or after a command delimiter such as ‘<samp>;</samp>’ or ‘<samp>|</samp>’, which is usually command name completion. </p> <p>If multiple options are supplied, the <samp>-D</samp> option takes precedence over <samp>-E</samp>, and both take precedence over <samp>-I</samp> </p> <p>The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied, an attempt is made to modify the options for a <var>name</var> for which no completion specification exists, or an output error occurs. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="A-Programmable-Completion-Example"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Programmable Completion Builtins</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command Line Editing</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="A-Programmable-Completion-Example-1"></span><h3 class="section">8.8 A Programmable Completion Example</h3> <p>The most common way to obtain additional completion functionality beyond the default actions <code>complete</code> and <code>compgen</code> provide is to use a shell function and bind it to a particular command using <code>complete -F</code>. </p> <p>The following function provides completions for the <code>cd</code> builtin. It is a reasonably good example of what shell functions must do when used for completion. This function uses the word passed as <code>$2</code> to determine the directory name to complete. You can also use the <code>COMP_WORDS</code> array variable; the current word is indexed by the <code>COMP_CWORD</code> variable. </p> <p>The function relies on the <code>complete</code> and <code>compgen</code> builtins to do much of the work, adding only the things that the Bash <code>cd</code> does beyond accepting basic directory names: tilde expansion (see <a href="#Tilde-Expansion">Tilde Expansion</a>), searching directories in <var>$CDPATH</var>, which is described above (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>), and basic support for the <code>cdable_vars</code> shell option (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>). <code>_comp_cd</code> modifies the value of <var>IFS</var> so that it contains only a newline to accommodate file names containing spaces and tabs – <code>compgen</code> prints the possible completions it generates one per line. </p> <p>Possible completions go into the <var>COMPREPLY</var> array variable, one completion per array element. The programmable completion system retrieves the completions from there when the function returns. </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example"># A completion function for the cd builtin # based on the cd completion function from the bash_completion package _comp_cd() { local IFS=$' \t\n' # normalize IFS local cur _skipdot _cdpath local i j k # Tilde expansion, which also expands tilde to full pathname case "$2" in \~*) eval cur="$2" ;; *) cur=$2 ;; esac # no cdpath or absolute pathname -- straight directory completion if [[ -z "${CDPATH:-}" ]] || [[ "$cur" == @(./*|../*|/*) ]]; then # compgen prints paths one per line; could also use while loop IFS=$'\n' COMPREPLY=( $(compgen -d -- "$cur") ) IFS=$' \t\n' # CDPATH+directories in the current directory if not in CDPATH else IFS=$'\n' _skipdot=false # preprocess CDPATH to convert null directory names to . _cdpath=${CDPATH/#:/.:} _cdpath=${_cdpath//::/:.:} _cdpath=${_cdpath/%:/:.} for i in ${_cdpath//:/$'\n'}; do if [[ $i -ef . ]]; then _skipdot=true; fi k="${#COMPREPLY[@]}" for j in $( compgen -d -- "$i/$cur" ); do COMPREPLY[k++]=${j#$i/} # cut off directory done done $_skipdot || COMPREPLY+=( $(compgen -d -- "$cur") ) IFS=$' \t\n' fi # variable names if appropriate shell option set and no completions if shopt -q cdable_vars && [[ ${#COMPREPLY[@]} -eq 0 ]]; then COMPREPLY=( $(compgen -v -- "$cur") ) fi return 0 } </pre></div> <p>We install the completion function using the <samp>-F</samp> option to <code>complete</code>: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example"># Tell readline to quote appropriate and append slashes to directories; # use the bash default completion for other arguments complete -o filenames -o nospace -o bashdefault -F _comp_cd cd </pre></div> <p>Since we’d like Bash and Readline to take care of some of the other details for us, we use several other options to tell Bash and Readline what to do. The <samp>-o filenames</samp> option tells Readline that the possible completions should be treated as filenames, and quoted appropriately. That option will also cause Readline to append a slash to filenames it can determine are directories (which is why we might want to extend <code>_comp_cd</code> to append a slash if we’re using directories found via <var>CDPATH</var>: Readline can’t tell those completions are directories). The <samp>-o nospace</samp> option tells Readline to not append a space character to the directory name, in case we want to append to it. The <samp>-o bashdefault</samp> option brings in the rest of the "Bash default" completions – possible completion that Bash adds to the default Readline set. These include things like command name completion, variable completion for words beginning with ‘<samp>$</samp>’ or ‘<samp>${</samp>’, completions containing pathname expansion patterns (see <a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a>), and so on. </p> <p>Once installed using <code>complete</code>, <code>_comp_cd</code> will be called every time we attempt word completion for a <code>cd</code> command. </p> <p>Many more examples – an extensive collection of completions for most of the common GNU, Unix, and Linux commands – are available as part of the bash_completion project. This is installed by default on many GNU/Linux distributions. Originally written by Ian Macdonald, the project now lives at <a href="https://github.com/scop/bash-completion/">https://github.com/scop/bash-completion/</a>. There are ports for other systems such as Solaris and Mac OS X. </p> <p>An older version of the bash_completion package is distributed with bash in the <samp>examples/complete</samp> subdirectory. </p> <span id="index-History_002c-how-to-use"></span> <hr> <span id="Using-History-Interactively"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="n" rel="next">Installing Bash</a>, Previous: <a href="#Command-Line-Editing" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Command Line Editing</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Using-History-Interactively-1"></span><h2 class="chapter">9 Using History Interactively</h2> <p>This chapter describes how to use the <small>GNU</small> History Library interactively, from a user’s standpoint. It should be considered a user’s guide. For information on using the <small>GNU</small> History Library in other programs, see the <small>GNU</small> Readline Library Manual. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities" accesskey="1">Bash History Facilities</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How Bash lets you manipulate your command history. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bash-History-Builtins" accesskey="2">Bash History Builtins</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The Bash builtin commands that manipulate the command history. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#History-Interaction" accesskey="3">History Interaction</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">What it feels like using History as a user. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Bash-History-Facilities"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Bash-History-Builtins" accesskey="n" rel="next">Bash History Builtins</a>, Up: <a href="#Using-History-Interactively" accesskey="u" rel="up">Using History Interactively</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bash-History-Facilities-1"></span><h3 class="section">9.1 Bash History Facilities</h3> <span id="index-command-history"></span> <span id="index-history-list"></span> <p>When the <samp>-o history</samp> option to the <code>set</code> builtin is enabled (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>), the shell provides access to the <em>command history</em>, the list of commands previously typed. The value of the <code>HISTSIZE</code> shell variable is used as the number of commands to save in a history list. The text of the last <code>$HISTSIZE</code> commands (default 500) is saved. The shell stores each command in the history list prior to parameter and variable expansion but after history expansion is performed, subject to the values of the shell variables <code>HISTIGNORE</code> and <code>HISTCONTROL</code>. </p> <p>When the shell starts up, the history is initialized from the file named by the <code>HISTFILE</code> variable (default <samp>~/.bash_history</samp>). The file named by the value of <code>HISTFILE</code> is truncated, if necessary, to contain no more than the number of lines specified by the value of the <code>HISTFILESIZE</code> variable. When a shell with history enabled exits, the last <code>$HISTSIZE</code> lines are copied from the history list to the file named by <code>$HISTFILE</code>. If the <code>histappend</code> shell option is set (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>), the lines are appended to the history file, otherwise the history file is overwritten. If <code>HISTFILE</code> is unset, or if the history file is unwritable, the history is not saved. After saving the history, the history file is truncated to contain no more than <code>$HISTFILESIZE</code> lines. If <code>HISTFILESIZE</code> is unset, or set to null, a non-numeric value, or a numeric value less than zero, the history file is not truncated. </p> <p>If the <code>HISTTIMEFORMAT</code> is set, the time stamp information associated with each history entry is written to the history file, marked with the history comment character. When the history file is read, lines beginning with the history comment character followed immediately by a digit are interpreted as timestamps for the following history entry. </p> <p>The builtin command <code>fc</code> may be used to list or edit and re-execute a portion of the history list. The <code>history</code> builtin may be used to display or modify the history list and manipulate the history file. When using command-line editing, search commands are available in each editing mode that provide access to the history list (see <a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a>). </p> <p>The shell allows control over which commands are saved on the history list. The <code>HISTCONTROL</code> and <code>HISTIGNORE</code> variables may be set to cause the shell to save only a subset of the commands entered. The <code>cmdhist</code> shell option, if enabled, causes the shell to attempt to save each line of a multi-line command in the same history entry, adding semicolons where necessary to preserve syntactic correctness. The <code>lithist</code> shell option causes the shell to save the command with embedded newlines instead of semicolons. The <code>shopt</code> builtin is used to set these options. See <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>, for a description of <code>shopt</code>. </p> <hr> <span id="Bash-History-Builtins"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#History-Interaction" accesskey="n" rel="next">History Interaction</a>, Previous: <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bash History Facilities</a>, Up: <a href="#Using-History-Interactively" accesskey="u" rel="up">Using History Interactively</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Bash-History-Builtins-1"></span><h3 class="section">9.2 Bash History Builtins</h3> <span id="index-history-builtins"></span> <p>Bash provides two builtin commands which manipulate the history list and history file. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>fc</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-fc"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example"><code>fc [-e <var>ename</var>] [-lnr] [<var>first</var>] [<var>last</var>]</code> <code>fc -s [<var>pat</var>=<var>rep</var>] [<var>command</var>]</code> </pre></div> <p>The first form selects a range of commands from <var>first</var> to <var>last</var> from the history list and displays or edits and re-executes them. Both <var>first</var> and <var>last</var> may be specified as a string (to locate the most recent command beginning with that string) or as a number (an index into the history list, where a negative number is used as an offset from the current command number). </p> <p>When listing, a <var>first</var> or <var>last</var> of 0 is equivalent to -1 and -0 is equivalent to the current command (usually the <code>fc</code> command); otherwise 0 is equivalent to -1 and -0 is invalid. </p> <p>If <var>last</var> is not specified, it is set to <var>first</var>. If <var>first</var> is not specified, it is set to the previous command for editing and -16 for listing. If the <samp>-l</samp> flag is given, the commands are listed on standard output. The <samp>-n</samp> flag suppresses the command numbers when listing. The <samp>-r</samp> flag reverses the order of the listing. Otherwise, the editor given by <var>ename</var> is invoked on a file containing those commands. If <var>ename</var> is not given, the value of the following variable expansion is used: <code>${FCEDIT:-${EDITOR:-vi}}</code>. This says to use the value of the <code>FCEDIT</code> variable if set, or the value of the <code>EDITOR</code> variable if that is set, or <code>vi</code> if neither is set. When editing is complete, the edited commands are echoed and executed. </p> <p>In the second form, <var>command</var> is re-executed after each instance of <var>pat</var> in the selected command is replaced by <var>rep</var>. <var>command</var> is interpreted the same as <var>first</var> above. </p> <p>A useful alias to use with the <code>fc</code> command is <code>r='fc -s'</code>, so that typing ‘<samp>r cc</samp>’ runs the last command beginning with <code>cc</code> and typing ‘<samp>r</samp>’ re-executes the last command (see <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>history</code></dt> <dd><span id="index-history"></span> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">history [<var>n</var>] history -c history -d <var>offset</var> history -d <var>start</var>-<var>end</var> history [-anrw] [<var>filename</var>] history -ps <var>arg</var> </pre></div> <p>With no options, display the history list with line numbers. Lines prefixed with a ‘<samp>*</samp>’ have been modified. An argument of <var>n</var> lists only the last <var>n</var> lines. If the shell variable <code>HISTTIMEFORMAT</code> is set and not null, it is used as a format string for <var>strftime</var> to display the time stamp associated with each displayed history entry. No intervening blank is printed between the formatted time stamp and the history line. </p> <p>Options, if supplied, have the following meanings: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>-c</code></dt> <dd><p>Clear the history list. This may be combined with the other options to replace the history list completely. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-d <var>offset</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Delete the history entry at position <var>offset</var>. If <var>offset</var> is positive, it should be specified as it appears when the history is displayed. If <var>offset</var> is negative, it is interpreted as relative to one greater than the last history position, so negative indices count back from the end of the history, and an index of ‘<samp>-1</samp>’ refers to the current <code>history -d</code> command. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-d <var>start</var>-<var>end</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Delete the history entries between positions <var>start</var> and <var>end</var>, inclusive. Positive and negative values for <var>start</var> and <var>end</var> are interpreted as described above. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-a</code></dt> <dd><p>Append the new history lines to the history file. These are history lines entered since the beginning of the current Bash session, but not already appended to the history file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-n</code></dt> <dd><p>Append the history lines not already read from the history file to the current history list. These are lines appended to the history file since the beginning of the current Bash session. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-r</code></dt> <dd><p>Read the history file and append its contents to the history list. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-w</code></dt> <dd><p>Write out the current history list to the history file. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-p</code></dt> <dd><p>Perform history substitution on the <var>arg</var>s and display the result on the standard output, without storing the results in the history list. </p> </dd> <dt><code>-s</code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>arg</var>s are added to the end of the history list as a single entry. </p> </dd> </dl> <p>When any of the <samp>-w</samp>, <samp>-r</samp>, <samp>-a</samp>, or <samp>-n</samp> options is used, if <var>filename</var> is given, then it is used as the history file. If not, then the value of the <code>HISTFILE</code> variable is used. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="History-Interaction"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Bash-History-Builtins" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bash History Builtins</a>, Up: <a href="#Using-History-Interactively" accesskey="u" rel="up">Using History Interactively</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="History-Expansion"></span><h3 class="section">9.3 History Expansion</h3> <span id="index-history-expansion"></span> <p>The History library provides a history expansion feature that is similar to the history expansion provided by <code>csh</code>. This section describes the syntax used to manipulate the history information. </p> <p>History expansions introduce words from the history list into the input stream, making it easy to repeat commands, insert the arguments to a previous command into the current input line, or fix errors in previous commands quickly. </p> <p>History expansion is performed immediately after a complete line is read, before the shell breaks it into words, and is performed on each line individually. Bash attempts to inform the history expansion functions about quoting still in effect from previous lines. </p> <p>History expansion takes place in two parts. The first is to determine which line from the history list should be used during substitution. The second is to select portions of that line for inclusion into the current one. The line selected from the history is called the <em>event</em>, and the portions of that line that are acted upon are called <em>words</em>. Various <em>modifiers</em> are available to manipulate the selected words. The line is broken into words in the same fashion that Bash does, so that several words surrounded by quotes are considered one word. History expansions are introduced by the appearance of the history expansion character, which is ‘<samp>!</samp>’ by default. </p> <p>History expansion implements shell-like quoting conventions: a backslash can be used to remove the special handling for the next character; single quotes enclose verbatim sequences of characters, and can be used to inhibit history expansion; and characters enclosed within double quotes may be subject to history expansion, since backslash can escape the history expansion character, but single quotes may not, since they are not treated specially within double quotes. </p> <p>When using the shell, only ‘<samp>\</samp>’ and ‘<samp>'</samp>’ may be used to escape the history expansion character, but the history expansion character is also treated as quoted if it immediately precedes the closing double quote in a double-quoted string. </p> <p>Several shell options settable with the <code>shopt</code> builtin (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>) may be used to tailor the behavior of history expansion. If the <code>histverify</code> shell option is enabled, and Readline is being used, history substitutions are not immediately passed to the shell parser. Instead, the expanded line is reloaded into the Readline editing buffer for further modification. If Readline is being used, and the <code>histreedit</code> shell option is enabled, a failed history expansion will be reloaded into the Readline editing buffer for correction. The <samp>-p</samp> option to the <code>history</code> builtin command may be used to see what a history expansion will do before using it. The <samp>-s</samp> option to the <code>history</code> builtin may be used to add commands to the end of the history list without actually executing them, so that they are available for subsequent recall. This is most useful in conjunction with Readline. </p> <p>The shell allows control of the various characters used by the history expansion mechanism with the <code>histchars</code> variable, as explained above (see <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>). The shell uses the history comment character to mark history timestamps when writing the history file. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Event-Designators" accesskey="1">Event Designators</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to specify which history line to use. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Word-Designators" accesskey="2">Word Designators</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Specifying which words are of interest. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Modifiers" accesskey="3">Modifiers</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Modifying the results of substitution. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Event-Designators"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Word-Designators" accesskey="n" rel="next">Word Designators</a>, Up: <a href="#History-Interaction" accesskey="u" rel="up">History Interaction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Event-Designators-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">9.3.1 Event Designators</h4> <span id="index-event-designators"></span> <p>An event designator is a reference to a command line entry in the history list. Unless the reference is absolute, events are relative to the current position in the history list. <span id="index-history-events"></span> </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>!</code></dt> <dd><p>Start a history substitution, except when followed by a space, tab, the end of the line, ‘<samp>=</samp>’ or ‘<samp>(</samp>’ (when the <code>extglob</code> shell option is enabled using the <code>shopt</code> builtin). </p> </dd> <dt><code>!<var>n</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Refer to command line <var>n</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>!-<var>n</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Refer to the command <var>n</var> lines back. </p> </dd> <dt><code>!!</code></dt> <dd><p>Refer to the previous command. This is a synonym for ‘<samp>!-1</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>!<var>string</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Refer to the most recent command preceding the current position in the history list starting with <var>string</var>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>!?<var>string</var>[?]</code></dt> <dd><p>Refer to the most recent command preceding the current position in the history list containing <var>string</var>. The trailing ‘<samp>?</samp>’ may be omitted if the <var>string</var> is followed immediately by a newline. If <var>string</var> is missing, the string from the most recent search is used; it is an error if there is no previous search string. </p> </dd> <dt><code>^<var>string1</var>^<var>string2</var>^</code></dt> <dd><p>Quick Substitution. Repeat the last command, replacing <var>string1</var> with <var>string2</var>. Equivalent to <code>!!:s^<var>string1</var>^<var>string2</var>^</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>!#</code></dt> <dd><p>The entire command line typed so far. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Word-Designators"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Modifiers" accesskey="n" rel="next">Modifiers</a>, Previous: <a href="#Event-Designators" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Event Designators</a>, Up: <a href="#History-Interaction" accesskey="u" rel="up">History Interaction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Word-Designators-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">9.3.2 Word Designators</h4> <p>Word designators are used to select desired words from the event. A ‘<samp>:</samp>’ separates the event specification from the word designator. It may be omitted if the word designator begins with a ‘<samp>^</samp>’, ‘<samp>$</samp>’, ‘<samp>*</samp>’, ‘<samp>-</samp>’, or ‘<samp>%</samp>’. Words are numbered from the beginning of the line, with the first word being denoted by 0 (zero). Words are inserted into the current line separated by single spaces. </p> <p>For example, </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>!!</code></dt> <dd><p>designates the preceding command. When you type this, the preceding command is repeated in toto. </p> </dd> <dt><code>!!:$</code></dt> <dd><p>designates the last argument of the preceding command. This may be shortened to <code>!$</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>!fi:2</code></dt> <dd><p>designates the second argument of the most recent command starting with the letters <code>fi</code>. </p></dd> </dl> <p>Here are the word designators: </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>0 (zero)</code></dt> <dd><p>The <code>0</code>th word. For many applications, this is the command word. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>n</var></code></dt> <dd><p>The <var>n</var>th word. </p> </dd> <dt><code>^</code></dt> <dd><p>The first argument; that is, word 1. </p> </dd> <dt><code>$</code></dt> <dd><p>The last argument. </p> </dd> <dt><code>%</code></dt> <dd><p>The first word matched by the most recent ‘<samp>?<var>string</var>?</samp>’ search, if the search string begins with a character that is part of a word. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>x</var>-<var>y</var></code></dt> <dd><p>A range of words; ‘<samp>-<var>y</var></samp>’ abbreviates ‘<samp>0-<var>y</var></samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>*</code></dt> <dd><p>All of the words, except the <code>0</code>th. This is a synonym for ‘<samp>1-$</samp>’. It is not an error to use ‘<samp>*</samp>’ if there is just one word in the event; the empty string is returned in that case. </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>x</var>*</code></dt> <dd><p>Abbreviates ‘<samp><var>x</var>-$</samp>’ </p> </dd> <dt><code><var>x</var>-</code></dt> <dd><p>Abbreviates ‘<samp><var>x</var>-$</samp>’ like ‘<samp><var>x</var>*</samp>’, but omits the last word. If ‘<samp>x</samp>’ is missing, it defaults to 0. </p> </dd> </dl> <p>If a word designator is supplied without an event specification, the previous command is used as the event. </p> <hr> <span id="Modifiers"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Word-Designators" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Word Designators</a>, Up: <a href="#History-Interaction" accesskey="u" rel="up">History Interaction</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Modifiers-1"></span><h4 class="subsection">9.3.3 Modifiers</h4> <p>After the optional word designator, you can add a sequence of one or more of the following modifiers, each preceded by a ‘<samp>:</samp>’. These modify, or edit, the word or words selected from the history event. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>h</code></dt> <dd><p>Remove a trailing pathname component, leaving only the head. </p> </dd> <dt><code>t</code></dt> <dd><p>Remove all leading pathname components, leaving the tail. </p> </dd> <dt><code>r</code></dt> <dd><p>Remove a trailing suffix of the form ‘<samp>.<var>suffix</var></samp>’, leaving the basename. </p> </dd> <dt><code>e</code></dt> <dd><p>Remove all but the trailing suffix. </p> </dd> <dt><code>p</code></dt> <dd><p>Print the new command but do not execute it. </p> </dd> <dt><code>q</code></dt> <dd><p>Quote the substituted words, escaping further substitutions. </p> </dd> <dt><code>x</code></dt> <dd><p>Quote the substituted words as with ‘<samp>q</samp>’, but break into words at spaces, tabs, and newlines. The ‘<samp>q</samp>’ and ‘<samp>x</samp>’ modifiers are mutually exclusive; the last one supplied is used. </p> </dd> <dt><code>s/<var>old</var>/<var>new</var>/</code></dt> <dd><p>Substitute <var>new</var> for the first occurrence of <var>old</var> in the event line. Any character may be used as the delimiter in place of ‘<samp>/</samp>’. The delimiter may be quoted in <var>old</var> and <var>new</var> with a single backslash. If ‘<samp>&</samp>’ appears in <var>new</var>, it is replaced by <var>old</var>. A single backslash will quote the ‘<samp>&</samp>’. If <var>old</var> is null, it is set to the last <var>old</var> substituted, or, if no previous history substitutions took place, the last <var>string</var> in a !?<var>string</var><code>[?]</code> search. If <var>new</var> is is null, each matching <var>old</var> is deleted. The final delimiter is optional if it is the last character on the input line. </p> </dd> <dt><code>&</code></dt> <dd><p>Repeat the previous substitution. </p> </dd> <dt><code>g</code></dt> <dt><code>a</code></dt> <dd><p>Cause changes to be applied over the entire event line. Used in conjunction with ‘<samp>s</samp>’, as in <code>gs/<var>old</var>/<var>new</var>/</code>, or with ‘<samp>&</samp>’. </p> </dd> <dt><code>G</code></dt> <dd><p>Apply the following ‘<samp>s</samp>’ or ‘<samp>&</samp>’ modifier once to each word in the event. </p> </dd> </dl> <hr> <span id="Installing-Bash"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Reporting-Bugs" accesskey="n" rel="next">Reporting Bugs</a>, Previous: <a href="#Using-History-Interactively" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Using History Interactively</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Installing-Bash-1"></span><h2 class="chapter">10 Installing Bash</h2> <p>This chapter provides basic instructions for installing Bash on the various supported platforms. The distribution supports the <small>GNU</small> operating systems, nearly every version of Unix, and several non-Unix systems such as BeOS and Interix. Other independent ports exist for <small>MS-DOS</small>, <small>OS/2</small>, and Windows platforms. </p> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Basic-Installation" accesskey="1">Basic Installation</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Installation instructions. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Compilers-and-Options" accesskey="2">Compilers and Options</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to set special options for various systems. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Compiling-For-Multiple-Architectures" accesskey="3">Compiling For Multiple Architectures</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to compile Bash for more than one kind of system from the same source tree. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Installation-Names" accesskey="4">Installation Names</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to set the various paths used by the installation. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Specifying-the-System-Type" accesskey="5">Specifying the System Type</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to configure Bash for a particular system. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Sharing-Defaults" accesskey="6">Sharing Defaults</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to share default configuration values among GNU programs. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Operation-Controls" accesskey="7">Operation Controls</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Options recognized by the configuration program. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Optional-Features" accesskey="8">Optional Features</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">How to enable and disable optional features when building Bash. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Basic-Installation"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Compilers-and-Options" accesskey="n" rel="next">Compilers and Options</a>, Up: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="u" rel="up">Installing Bash</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Basic-Installation-1"></span><h3 class="section">10.1 Basic Installation</h3> <span id="index-installation"></span> <span id="index-configuration"></span> <span id="index-Bash-installation"></span> <span id="index-Bash-configuration"></span> <p>These are installation instructions for Bash. </p> <p>The simplest way to compile Bash is: </p> <ol> <li> <code>cd</code> to the directory containing the source code and type ‘<samp>./configure</samp>’ to configure Bash for your system. If you’re using <code>csh</code> on an old version of System V, you might need to type ‘<samp>sh ./configure</samp>’ instead to prevent <code>csh</code> from trying to execute <code>configure</code> itself. <p>Running <code>configure</code> takes some time. While running, it prints messages telling which features it is checking for. </p> </li><li> Type ‘<samp>make</samp>’ to compile Bash and build the <code>bashbug</code> bug reporting script. </li><li> Optionally, type ‘<samp>make tests</samp>’ to run the Bash test suite. </li><li> Type ‘<samp>make install</samp>’ to install <code>bash</code> and <code>bashbug</code>. This will also install the manual pages and Info file. </li></ol> <p>The <code>configure</code> shell script attempts to guess correct values for various system-dependent variables used during compilation. It uses those values to create a <samp>Makefile</samp> in each directory of the package (the top directory, the <samp>builtins</samp>, <samp>doc</samp>, and <samp>support</samp> directories, each directory under <samp>lib</samp>, and several others). It also creates a <samp>config.h</samp> file containing system-dependent definitions. Finally, it creates a shell script named <code>config.status</code> that you can run in the future to recreate the current configuration, a file <samp>config.cache</samp> that saves the results of its tests to speed up reconfiguring, and a file <samp>config.log</samp> containing compiler output (useful mainly for debugging <code>configure</code>). If at some point <samp>config.cache</samp> contains results you don’t want to keep, you may remove or edit it. </p> <p>To find out more about the options and arguments that the <code>configure</code> script understands, type </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">bash-4.2$ ./configure --help </pre></div> <p>at the Bash prompt in your Bash source directory. </p> <p>If you want to build Bash in a directory separate from the source directory – to build for multiple architectures, for example – just use the full path to the configure script. The following commands will build bash in a directory under <samp>/usr/local/build</samp> from the source code in <samp>/usr/local/src/bash-4.4</samp>: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">mkdir /usr/local/build/bash-4.4 cd /usr/local/build/bash-4.4 bash /usr/local/src/bash-4.4/configure make </pre></div> <p>See <a href="#Compiling-For-Multiple-Architectures">Compiling For Multiple Architectures</a> for more information about building in a directory separate from the source. </p> <p>If you need to do unusual things to compile Bash, please try to figure out how <code>configure</code> could check whether or not to do them, and mail diffs or instructions to <a href="mailto:bash-maintainers@gnu.org">bash-maintainers@gnu.org</a> so they can be considered for the next release. </p> <p>The file <samp>configure.ac</samp> is used to create <code>configure</code> by a program called Autoconf. You only need <samp>configure.ac</samp> if you want to change it or regenerate <code>configure</code> using a newer version of Autoconf. If you do this, make sure you are using Autoconf version 2.50 or newer. </p> <p>You can remove the program binaries and object files from the source code directory by typing ‘<samp>make clean</samp>’. To also remove the files that <code>configure</code> created (so you can compile Bash for a different kind of computer), type ‘<samp>make distclean</samp>’. </p> <hr> <span id="Compilers-and-Options"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Compiling-For-Multiple-Architectures" accesskey="n" rel="next">Compiling For Multiple Architectures</a>, Previous: <a href="#Basic-Installation" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Basic Installation</a>, Up: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="u" rel="up">Installing Bash</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Compilers-and-Options-1"></span><h3 class="section">10.2 Compilers and Options</h3> <p>Some systems require unusual options for compilation or linking that the <code>configure</code> script does not know about. You can give <code>configure</code> initial values for variables by setting them in the environment. Using a Bourne-compatible shell, you can do that on the command line like this: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">CC=c89 CFLAGS=-O2 LIBS=-lposix ./configure </pre></div> <p>On systems that have the <code>env</code> program, you can do it like this: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">env CPPFLAGS=-I/usr/local/include LDFLAGS=-s ./configure </pre></div> <p>The configuration process uses GCC to build Bash if it is available. </p> <hr> <span id="Compiling-For-Multiple-Architectures"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Installation-Names" accesskey="n" rel="next">Installation Names</a>, Previous: <a href="#Compilers-and-Options" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Compilers and Options</a>, Up: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="u" rel="up">Installing Bash</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Compiling-For-Multiple-Architectures-1"></span><h3 class="section">10.3 Compiling For Multiple Architectures</h3> <p>You can compile Bash for more than one kind of computer at the same time, by placing the object files for each architecture in their own directory. To do this, you must use a version of <code>make</code> that supports the <code>VPATH</code> variable, such as GNU <code>make</code>. <code>cd</code> to the directory where you want the object files and executables to go and run the <code>configure</code> script from the source directory (see <a href="#Basic-Installation">Basic Installation</a>). You may need to supply the <samp>--srcdir=PATH</samp> argument to tell <code>configure</code> where the source files are. <code>configure</code> automatically checks for the source code in the directory that <code>configure</code> is in and in ‘..’. </p> <p>If you have to use a <code>make</code> that does not supports the <code>VPATH</code> variable, you can compile Bash for one architecture at a time in the source code directory. After you have installed Bash for one architecture, use ‘<samp>make distclean</samp>’ before reconfiguring for another architecture. </p> <p>Alternatively, if your system supports symbolic links, you can use the <samp>support/mkclone</samp> script to create a build tree which has symbolic links back to each file in the source directory. Here’s an example that creates a build directory in the current directory from a source directory <samp>/usr/gnu/src/bash-2.0</samp>: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example">bash /usr/gnu/src/bash-2.0/support/mkclone -s /usr/gnu/src/bash-2.0 . </pre></div> <p>The <code>mkclone</code> script requires Bash, so you must have already built Bash for at least one architecture before you can create build directories for other architectures. </p> <hr> <span id="Installation-Names"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Specifying-the-System-Type" accesskey="n" rel="next">Specifying the System Type</a>, Previous: <a href="#Compiling-For-Multiple-Architectures" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Compiling For Multiple Architectures</a>, Up: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="u" rel="up">Installing Bash</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Installation-Names-1"></span><h3 class="section">10.4 Installation Names</h3> <p>By default, ‘<samp>make install</samp>’ will install into <samp>/usr/local/bin</samp>, <samp>/usr/local/man</samp>, etc. You can specify an installation prefix other than <samp>/usr/local</samp> by giving <code>configure</code> the option <samp>--prefix=<var>PATH</var></samp>, or by specifying a value for the <code>DESTDIR</code> ‘<samp>make</samp>’ variable when running ‘<samp>make install</samp>’. </p> <p>You can specify separate installation prefixes for architecture-specific files and architecture-independent files. If you give <code>configure</code> the option <samp>--exec-prefix=<var>PATH</var></samp>, ‘<samp>make install</samp>’ will use <var>PATH</var> as the prefix for installing programs and libraries. Documentation and other data files will still use the regular prefix. </p> <hr> <span id="Specifying-the-System-Type"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Sharing-Defaults" accesskey="n" rel="next">Sharing Defaults</a>, Previous: <a href="#Installation-Names" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Installation Names</a>, Up: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="u" rel="up">Installing Bash</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Specifying-the-System-Type-1"></span><h3 class="section">10.5 Specifying the System Type</h3> <p>There may be some features <code>configure</code> can not figure out automatically, but need to determine by the type of host Bash will run on. Usually <code>configure</code> can figure that out, but if it prints a message saying it can not guess the host type, give it the <samp>--host=TYPE</samp> option. ‘<samp>TYPE</samp>’ can either be a short name for the system type, such as ‘<samp>sun4</samp>’, or a canonical name with three fields: ‘<samp>CPU-COMPANY-SYSTEM</samp>’ (e.g., ‘<samp>i386-unknown-freebsd4.2</samp>’). </p> <p>See the file <samp>support/config.sub</samp> for the possible values of each field. </p> <hr> <span id="Sharing-Defaults"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Operation-Controls" accesskey="n" rel="next">Operation Controls</a>, Previous: <a href="#Specifying-the-System-Type" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Specifying the System Type</a>, Up: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="u" rel="up">Installing Bash</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Sharing-Defaults-1"></span><h3 class="section">10.6 Sharing Defaults</h3> <p>If you want to set default values for <code>configure</code> scripts to share, you can create a site shell script called <code>config.site</code> that gives default values for variables like <code>CC</code>, <code>cache_file</code>, and <code>prefix</code>. <code>configure</code> looks for <samp>PREFIX/share/config.site</samp> if it exists, then <samp>PREFIX/etc/config.site</samp> if it exists. Or, you can set the <code>CONFIG_SITE</code> environment variable to the location of the site script. A warning: the Bash <code>configure</code> looks for a site script, but not all <code>configure</code> scripts do. </p> <hr> <span id="Operation-Controls"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Optional-Features" accesskey="n" rel="next">Optional Features</a>, Previous: <a href="#Sharing-Defaults" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Sharing Defaults</a>, Up: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="u" rel="up">Installing Bash</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Operation-Controls-1"></span><h3 class="section">10.7 Operation Controls</h3> <p><code>configure</code> recognizes the following options to control how it operates. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>--cache-file=<var>file</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Use and save the results of the tests in <var>file</var> instead of <samp>./config.cache</samp>. Set <var>file</var> to <samp>/dev/null</samp> to disable caching, for debugging <code>configure</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--help</code></dt> <dd><p>Print a summary of the options to <code>configure</code>, and exit. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--quiet</code></dt> <dt><code>--silent</code></dt> <dt><code>-q</code></dt> <dd><p>Do not print messages saying which checks are being made. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--srcdir=<var>dir</var></code></dt> <dd><p>Look for the Bash source code in directory <var>dir</var>. Usually <code>configure</code> can determine that directory automatically. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--version</code></dt> <dd><p>Print the version of Autoconf used to generate the <code>configure</code> script, and exit. </p></dd> </dl> <p><code>configure</code> also accepts some other, not widely used, boilerplate options. ‘<samp>configure --help</samp>’ prints the complete list. </p> <hr> <span id="Optional-Features"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Operation-Controls" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Operation Controls</a>, Up: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="u" rel="up">Installing Bash</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Optional-Features-1"></span><h3 class="section">10.8 Optional Features</h3> <p>The Bash <code>configure</code> has a number of <samp>--enable-<var>feature</var></samp> options, where <var>feature</var> indicates an optional part of Bash. There are also several <samp>--with-<var>package</var></samp> options, where <var>package</var> is something like ‘<samp>bash-malloc</samp>’ or ‘<samp>purify</samp>’. To turn off the default use of a package, use <samp>--without-<var>package</var></samp>. To configure Bash without a feature that is enabled by default, use <samp>--disable-<var>feature</var></samp>. </p> <p>Here is a complete list of the <samp>--enable-</samp> and <samp>--with-</samp> options that the Bash <code>configure</code> recognizes. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>--with-afs</code></dt> <dd><p>Define if you are using the Andrew File System from Transarc. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--with-bash-malloc</code></dt> <dd><p>Use the Bash version of <code>malloc</code> in the directory <samp>lib/malloc</samp>. This is not the same <code>malloc</code> that appears in <small>GNU</small> libc, but an older version originally derived from the 4.2 <small>BSD</small> <code>malloc</code>. This <code>malloc</code> is very fast, but wastes some space on each allocation. This option is enabled by default. The <samp>NOTES</samp> file contains a list of systems for which this should be turned off, and <code>configure</code> disables this option automatically for a number of systems. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--with-curses</code></dt> <dd><p>Use the curses library instead of the termcap library. This should be supplied if your system has an inadequate or incomplete termcap database. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--with-gnu-malloc</code></dt> <dd><p>A synonym for <code>--with-bash-malloc</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--with-installed-readline[=<var>PREFIX</var>]</code></dt> <dd><p>Define this to make Bash link with a locally-installed version of Readline rather than the version in <samp>lib/readline</samp>. This works only with Readline 5.0 and later versions. If <var>PREFIX</var> is <code>yes</code> or not supplied, <code>configure</code> uses the values of the make variables <code>includedir</code> and <code>libdir</code>, which are subdirectories of <code>prefix</code> by default, to find the installed version of Readline if it is not in the standard system include and library directories. If <var>PREFIX</var> is <code>no</code>, Bash links with the version in <samp>lib/readline</samp>. If <var>PREFIX</var> is set to any other value, <code>configure</code> treats it as a directory pathname and looks for the installed version of Readline in subdirectories of that directory (include files in <var>PREFIX</var>/<code>include</code> and the library in <var>PREFIX</var>/<code>lib</code>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--with-purify</code></dt> <dd><p>Define this to use the Purify memory allocation checker from Rational Software. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-minimal-config</code></dt> <dd><p>This produces a shell with minimal features, close to the historical Bourne shell. </p></dd> </dl> <p>There are several <samp>--enable-</samp> options that alter how Bash is compiled and linked, rather than changing run-time features. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>--enable-largefile</code></dt> <dd><p>Enable support for <a href="http://www.unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lfs20mar.html">large files</a> if the operating system requires special compiler options to build programs which can access large files. This is enabled by default, if the operating system provides large file support. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-profiling</code></dt> <dd><p>This builds a Bash binary that produces profiling information to be processed by <code>gprof</code> each time it is executed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-static-link</code></dt> <dd><p>This causes Bash to be linked statically, if <code>gcc</code> is being used. This could be used to build a version to use as root’s shell. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The ‘<samp>minimal-config</samp>’ option can be used to disable all of the following options, but it is processed first, so individual options may be enabled using ‘<samp>enable-<var>feature</var></samp>’. </p> <p>All of the following options except for ‘<samp>disabled-builtins</samp>’, ‘<samp>direxpand-default</samp>’, and ‘<samp>xpg-echo-default</samp>’ are enabled by default, unless the operating system does not provide the necessary support. </p> <dl compact="compact"> <dt><code>--enable-alias</code></dt> <dd><p>Allow alias expansion and include the <code>alias</code> and <code>unalias</code> builtins (see <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-arith-for-command</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for the alternate form of the <code>for</code> command that behaves like the C language <code>for</code> statement (see <a href="#Looping-Constructs">Looping Constructs</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-array-variables</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for one-dimensional array shell variables (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-bang-history</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for <code>csh</code>-like history substitution (see <a href="#History-Interaction">History Interaction</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-brace-expansion</code></dt> <dd><p>Include <code>csh</code>-like brace expansion ( <code>b{a,b}c</code> → <code>bac bbc</code> ). See <a href="#Brace-Expansion">Brace Expansion</a>, for a complete description. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-casemod-attributes</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for case-modifying attributes in the <code>declare</code> builtin and assignment statements. Variables with the <var>uppercase</var> attribute, for example, will have their values converted to uppercase upon assignment. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-casemod-expansion</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for case-modifying word expansions. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-command-timing</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for recognizing <code>time</code> as a reserved word and for displaying timing statistics for the pipeline following <code>time</code> (see <a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a>). This allows pipelines as well as shell builtins and functions to be timed. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-cond-command</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for the <code>[[</code> conditional command. (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-cond-regexp</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for matching <small>POSIX</small> regular expressions using the ‘<samp>=~</samp>’ binary operator in the <code>[[</code> conditional command. (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-coprocesses</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for coprocesses and the <code>coproc</code> reserved word (see <a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-debugger</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for the bash debugger (distributed separately). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-dev-fd-stat-broken</code></dt> <dd><p>If calling <code>stat</code> on /dev/fd/<var>N</var> returns different results than calling <code>fstat</code> on file descriptor <var>N</var>, supply this option to enable a workaround. This has implications for conditional commands that test file attributes. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-direxpand-default</code></dt> <dd><p>Cause the <code>direxpand</code> shell option (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>) to be enabled by default when the shell starts. It is normally disabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-directory-stack</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for a <code>csh</code>-like directory stack and the <code>pushd</code>, <code>popd</code>, and <code>dirs</code> builtins (see <a href="#The-Directory-Stack">The Directory Stack</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-disabled-builtins</code></dt> <dd><p>Allow builtin commands to be invoked via ‘<samp>builtin xxx</samp>’ even after <code>xxx</code> has been disabled using ‘<samp>enable -n xxx</samp>’. See <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>, for details of the <code>builtin</code> and <code>enable</code> builtin commands. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-dparen-arithmetic</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for the <code>((…))</code> command (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-extended-glob</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for the extended pattern matching features described above under <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-extended-glob-default</code></dt> <dd><p>Set the default value of the <var>extglob</var> shell option described above under <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a> to be enabled. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-function-import</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for importing function definitions exported by another instance of the shell from the environment. This option is enabled by default. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-glob-asciirange-default</code></dt> <dd><p>Set the default value of the <var>globasciiranges</var> shell option described above under <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a> to be enabled. This controls the behavior of character ranges when used in pattern matching bracket expressions. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-help-builtin</code></dt> <dd><p>Include the <code>help</code> builtin, which displays help on shell builtins and variables (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-history</code></dt> <dd><p>Include command history and the <code>fc</code> and <code>history</code> builtin commands (see <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-job-control</code></dt> <dd><p>This enables the job control features (see <a href="#Job-Control">Job Control</a>), if the operating system supports them. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-multibyte</code></dt> <dd><p>This enables support for multibyte characters if the operating system provides the necessary support. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-net-redirections</code></dt> <dd><p>This enables the special handling of filenames of the form <code>/dev/tcp/<var>host</var>/<var>port</var></code> and <code>/dev/udp/<var>host</var>/<var>port</var></code> when used in redirections (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-process-substitution</code></dt> <dd><p>This enables process substitution (see <a href="#Process-Substitution">Process Substitution</a>) if the operating system provides the necessary support. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-progcomp</code></dt> <dd><p>Enable the programmable completion facilities (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>). If Readline is not enabled, this option has no effect. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-prompt-string-decoding</code></dt> <dd><p>Turn on the interpretation of a number of backslash-escaped characters in the <code>$PS0</code>, <code>$PS1</code>, <code>$PS2</code>, and <code>$PS4</code> prompt strings. See <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt">Controlling the Prompt</a>, for a complete list of prompt string escape sequences. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-readline</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for command-line editing and history with the Bash version of the Readline library (see <a href="#Command-Line-Editing">Command Line Editing</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-restricted</code></dt> <dd><p>Include support for a <em>restricted shell</em>. If this is enabled, Bash, when called as <code>rbash</code>, enters a restricted mode. See <a href="#The-Restricted-Shell">The Restricted Shell</a>, for a description of restricted mode. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-select</code></dt> <dd><p>Include the <code>select</code> compound command, which allows the generation of simple menus (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-separate-helpfiles</code></dt> <dd><p>Use external files for the documentation displayed by the <code>help</code> builtin instead of storing the text internally. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-single-help-strings</code></dt> <dd><p>Store the text displayed by the <code>help</code> builtin as a single string for each help topic. This aids in translating the text to different languages. You may need to disable this if your compiler cannot handle very long string literals. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-strict-posix-default</code></dt> <dd><p>Make Bash <small>POSIX</small>-conformant by default (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>). </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-usg-echo-default</code></dt> <dd><p>A synonym for <code>--enable-xpg-echo-default</code>. </p> </dd> <dt><code>--enable-xpg-echo-default</code></dt> <dd><p>Make the <code>echo</code> builtin expand backslash-escaped characters by default, without requiring the <samp>-e</samp> option. This sets the default value of the <code>xpg_echo</code> shell option to <code>on</code>, which makes the Bash <code>echo</code> behave more like the version specified in the Single Unix Specification, version 3. See <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>, for a description of the escape sequences that <code>echo</code> recognizes. </p></dd> </dl> <p>The file <samp>config-top.h</samp> contains C Preprocessor ‘<samp>#define</samp>’ statements for options which are not settable from <code>configure</code>. Some of these are not meant to be changed; beware of the consequences if you do. Read the comments associated with each definition for more information about its effect. </p> <hr> <span id="Reporting-Bugs"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Major-Differences-From-The-Bourne-Shell" accesskey="n" rel="next">Major Differences From The Bourne Shell</a>, Previous: <a href="#Installing-Bash" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Installing Bash</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Reporting-Bugs-1"></span><h2 class="appendix">Appendix A Reporting Bugs</h2> <p>Please report all bugs you find in Bash. But first, you should make sure that it really is a bug, and that it appears in the latest version of Bash. The latest version of Bash is always available for FTP from <a href="ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/bash/">ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/bash/</a>. </p> <p>Once you have determined that a bug actually exists, use the <code>bashbug</code> command to submit a bug report. If you have a fix, you are encouraged to mail that as well! Suggestions and ‘philosophical’ bug reports may be mailed to <a href="mailto:bug-bash@gnu.org">bug-bash@gnu.org</a> or posted to the Usenet newsgroup <code>gnu.bash.bug</code>. </p> <p>All bug reports should include: </p><ul> <li> The version number of Bash. </li><li> The hardware and operating system. </li><li> The compiler used to compile Bash. </li><li> A description of the bug behaviour. </li><li> A short script or ‘recipe’ which exercises the bug and may be used to reproduce it. </li></ul> <p><code>bashbug</code> inserts the first three items automatically into the template it provides for filing a bug report. </p> <p>Please send all reports concerning this manual to <a href="mailto:bug-bash@gnu.org">bug-bash@gnu.org</a>. </p> <hr> <span id="Major-Differences-From-The-Bourne-Shell"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#GNU-Free-Documentation-License" accesskey="n" rel="next">GNU Free Documentation License</a>, Previous: <a href="#Reporting-Bugs" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Reporting Bugs</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Major-Differences-From-The-Bourne-Shell-1"></span><h2 class="appendix">Appendix B Major Differences From The Bourne Shell</h2> <p>Bash implements essentially the same grammar, parameter and variable expansion, redirection, and quoting as the Bourne Shell. Bash uses the <small>POSIX</small> standard as the specification of how these features are to be implemented. There are some differences between the traditional Bourne shell and Bash; this section quickly details the differences of significance. A number of these differences are explained in greater depth in previous sections. This section uses the version of <code>sh</code> included in SVR4.2 (the last version of the historical Bourne shell) as the baseline reference. </p> <ul> <li> Bash is <small>POSIX</small>-conformant, even where the <small>POSIX</small> specification differs from traditional <code>sh</code> behavior (see <a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a>). </li><li> Bash has multi-character invocation options (see <a href="#Invoking-Bash">Invoking Bash</a>). </li><li> Bash has command-line editing (see <a href="#Command-Line-Editing">Command Line Editing</a>) and the <code>bind</code> builtin. </li><li> Bash provides a programmable word completion mechanism (see <a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a>), and builtin commands <code>complete</code>, <code>compgen</code>, and <code>compopt</code>, to manipulate it. </li><li> Bash has command history (see <a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a>) and the <code>history</code> and <code>fc</code> builtins to manipulate it. The Bash history list maintains timestamp information and uses the value of the <code>HISTTIMEFORMAT</code> variable to display it. </li><li> Bash implements <code>csh</code>-like history expansion (see <a href="#History-Interaction">History Interaction</a>). </li><li> Bash has one-dimensional array variables (see <a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a>), and the appropriate variable expansions and assignment syntax to use them. Several of the Bash builtins take options to act on arrays. Bash provides a number of built-in array variables. </li><li> The <code>$'…'</code> quoting syntax, which expands ANSI-C backslash-escaped characters in the text between the single quotes, is supported (see <a href="#ANSI_002dC-Quoting">ANSI-C Quoting</a>). </li><li> Bash supports the <code>$"…"</code> quoting syntax to do locale-specific translation of the characters between the double quotes. The <samp>-D</samp>, <samp>--dump-strings</samp>, and <samp>--dump-po-strings</samp> invocation options list the translatable strings found in a script (see <a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a>). </li><li> Bash implements the <code>!</code> keyword to negate the return value of a pipeline (see <a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a>). Very useful when an <code>if</code> statement needs to act only if a test fails. The Bash ‘<samp>-o pipefail</samp>’ option to <code>set</code> will cause a pipeline to return a failure status if any command fails. </li><li> Bash has the <code>time</code> reserved word and command timing (see <a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a>). The display of the timing statistics may be controlled with the <code>TIMEFORMAT</code> variable. </li><li> Bash implements the <code>for (( <var>expr1</var> ; <var>expr2</var> ; <var>expr3</var> ))</code> arithmetic for command, similar to the C language (see <a href="#Looping-Constructs">Looping Constructs</a>). </li><li> Bash includes the <code>select</code> compound command, which allows the generation of simple menus (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>). </li><li> Bash includes the <code>[[</code> compound command, which makes conditional testing part of the shell grammar (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>), including optional regular expression matching. </li><li> Bash provides optional case-insensitive matching for the <code>case</code> and <code>[[</code> constructs. </li><li> Bash includes brace expansion (see <a href="#Brace-Expansion">Brace Expansion</a>) and tilde expansion (see <a href="#Tilde-Expansion">Tilde Expansion</a>). </li><li> Bash implements command aliases and the <code>alias</code> and <code>unalias</code> builtins (see <a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a>). </li><li> Bash provides shell arithmetic, the <code>((</code> compound command (see <a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a>), and arithmetic expansion (see <a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a>). </li><li> Variables present in the shell’s initial environment are automatically exported to child processes. The Bourne shell does not normally do this unless the variables are explicitly marked using the <code>export</code> command. </li><li> Bash supports the ‘<samp>+=</samp>’ assignment operator, which appends to the value of the variable named on the left hand side. </li><li> Bash includes the <small>POSIX</small> pattern removal ‘<samp>%</samp>’, ‘<samp>#</samp>’, ‘<samp>%%</samp>’ and ‘<samp>##</samp>’ expansions to remove leading or trailing substrings from variable values (see <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>). </li><li> The expansion <code>${#xx}</code>, which returns the length of <code>${xx}</code>, is supported (see <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>). </li><li> The expansion <code>${var:</code><var>offset</var><code>[:</code><var>length</var><code>]}</code>, which expands to the substring of <code>var</code>’s value of length <var>length</var>, beginning at <var>offset</var>, is present (see <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>). </li><li> The expansion <code>${var/[/]</code><var>pattern</var><code>[/</code><var>replacement</var><code>]}</code>, which matches <var>pattern</var> and replaces it with <var>replacement</var> in the value of <code>var</code>, is available (see <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>). </li><li> The expansion <code>${!<var>prefix</var>*}</code> expansion, which expands to the names of all shell variables whose names begin with <var>prefix</var>, is available (see <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>). </li><li> Bash has <var>indirect</var> variable expansion using <code>${!word}</code> (see <a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a>). </li><li> Bash can expand positional parameters beyond <code>$9</code> using <code>${<var>num</var>}</code>. </li><li> The <small>POSIX</small> <code>$()</code> form of command substitution is implemented (see <a href="#Command-Substitution">Command Substitution</a>), and preferred to the Bourne shell’s <code>``</code> (which is also implemented for backwards compatibility). </li><li> Bash has process substitution (see <a href="#Process-Substitution">Process Substitution</a>). </li><li> Bash automatically assigns variables that provide information about the current user (<code>UID</code>, <code>EUID</code>, and <code>GROUPS</code>), the current host (<code>HOSTTYPE</code>, <code>OSTYPE</code>, <code>MACHTYPE</code>, and <code>HOSTNAME</code>), and the instance of Bash that is running (<code>BASH</code>, <code>BASH_VERSION</code>, and <code>BASH_VERSINFO</code>). See <a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a>, for details. </li><li> The <code>IFS</code> variable is used to split only the results of expansion, not all words (see <a href="#Word-Splitting">Word Splitting</a>). This closes a longstanding shell security hole. </li><li> The filename expansion bracket expression code uses ‘<samp>!</samp>’ and ‘<samp>^</samp>’ to negate the set of characters between the brackets. The Bourne shell uses only ‘<samp>!</samp>’. </li><li> Bash implements the full set of <small>POSIX</small> filename expansion operators, including <var>character classes</var>, <var>equivalence classes</var>, and <var>collating symbols</var> (see <a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a>). </li><li> Bash implements extended pattern matching features when the <code>extglob</code> shell option is enabled (see <a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a>). </li><li> It is possible to have a variable and a function with the same name; <code>sh</code> does not separate the two name spaces. </li><li> Bash functions are permitted to have local variables using the <code>local</code> builtin, and thus useful recursive functions may be written (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </li><li> Variable assignments preceding commands affect only that command, even builtins and functions (see <a href="#Environment">Environment</a>). In <code>sh</code>, all variable assignments preceding commands are global unless the command is executed from the file system. </li><li> Bash performs filename expansion on filenames specified as operands to input and output redirection operators (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>). </li><li> Bash contains the ‘<samp><></samp>’ redirection operator, allowing a file to be opened for both reading and writing, and the ‘<samp>&></samp>’ redirection operator, for directing standard output and standard error to the same file (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>). </li><li> Bash includes the ‘<samp><<<</samp>’ redirection operator, allowing a string to be used as the standard input to a command. </li><li> Bash implements the ‘<samp>[n]<&<var>word</var></samp>’ and ‘<samp>[n]>&<var>word</var></samp>’ redirection operators, which move one file descriptor to another. </li><li> Bash treats a number of filenames specially when they are used in redirection operators (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>). </li><li> Bash can open network connections to arbitrary machines and services with the redirection operators (see <a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a>). </li><li> The <code>noclobber</code> option is available to avoid overwriting existing files with output redirection (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). The ‘<samp>>|</samp>’ redirection operator may be used to override <code>noclobber</code>. </li><li> The Bash <code>cd</code> and <code>pwd</code> builtins (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>) each take <samp>-L</samp> and <samp>-P</samp> options to switch between logical and physical modes. </li><li> Bash allows a function to override a builtin with the same name, and provides access to that builtin’s functionality within the function via the <code>builtin</code> and <code>command</code> builtins (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </li><li> The <code>command</code> builtin allows selective disabling of functions when command lookup is performed (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </li><li> Individual builtins may be enabled or disabled using the <code>enable</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </li><li> The Bash <code>exec</code> builtin takes additional options that allow users to control the contents of the environment passed to the executed command, and what the zeroth argument to the command is to be (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). </li><li> Shell functions may be exported to children via the environment using <code>export -f</code> (see <a href="#Shell-Functions">Shell Functions</a>). </li><li> The Bash <code>export</code>, <code>readonly</code>, and <code>declare</code> builtins can take a <samp>-f</samp> option to act on shell functions, a <samp>-p</samp> option to display variables with various attributes set in a format that can be used as shell input, a <samp>-n</samp> option to remove various variable attributes, and ‘<samp>name=value</samp>’ arguments to set variable attributes and values simultaneously. </li><li> The Bash <code>hash</code> builtin allows a name to be associated with an arbitrary filename, even when that filename cannot be found by searching the <code>$PATH</code>, using ‘<samp>hash -p</samp>’ (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). </li><li> Bash includes a <code>help</code> builtin for quick reference to shell facilities (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </li><li> The <code>printf</code> builtin is available to display formatted output (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </li><li> The Bash <code>read</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>) will read a line ending in ‘<samp>\</samp>’ with the <samp>-r</samp> option, and will use the <code>REPLY</code> variable as a default if no non-option arguments are supplied. The Bash <code>read</code> builtin also accepts a prompt string with the <samp>-p</samp> option and will use Readline to obtain the line when given the <samp>-e</samp> option. The <code>read</code> builtin also has additional options to control input: the <samp>-s</samp> option will turn off echoing of input characters as they are read, the <samp>-t</samp> option will allow <code>read</code> to time out if input does not arrive within a specified number of seconds, the <samp>-n</samp> option will allow reading only a specified number of characters rather than a full line, and the <samp>-d</samp> option will read until a particular character rather than newline. </li><li> The <code>return</code> builtin may be used to abort execution of scripts executed with the <code>.</code> or <code>source</code> builtins (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). </li><li> Bash includes the <code>shopt</code> builtin, for finer control of shell optional capabilities (see <a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a>), and allows these options to be set and unset at shell invocation (see <a href="#Invoking-Bash">Invoking Bash</a>). </li><li> Bash has much more optional behavior controllable with the <code>set</code> builtin (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). </li><li> The ‘<samp>-x</samp>’ (<samp>xtrace</samp>) option displays commands other than simple commands when performing an execution trace (see <a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a>). </li><li> The <code>test</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>) is slightly different, as it implements the <small>POSIX</small> algorithm, which specifies the behavior based on the number of arguments. </li><li> Bash includes the <code>caller</code> builtin, which displays the context of any active subroutine call (a shell function or a script executed with the <code>.</code> or <code>source</code> builtins). This supports the bash debugger. </li><li> The <code>trap</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>) allows a <code>DEBUG</code> pseudo-signal specification, similar to <code>EXIT</code>. Commands specified with a <code>DEBUG</code> trap are executed before every simple command, <code>for</code> command, <code>case</code> command, <code>select</code> command, every arithmetic <code>for</code> command, and before the first command executes in a shell function. The <code>DEBUG</code> trap is not inherited by shell functions unless the function has been given the <code>trace</code> attribute or the <code>functrace</code> option has been enabled using the <code>shopt</code> builtin. The <code>extdebug</code> shell option has additional effects on the <code>DEBUG</code> trap. <p>The <code>trap</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>) allows an <code>ERR</code> pseudo-signal specification, similar to <code>EXIT</code> and <code>DEBUG</code>. Commands specified with an <code>ERR</code> trap are executed after a simple command fails, with a few exceptions. The <code>ERR</code> trap is not inherited by shell functions unless the <code>-o errtrace</code> option to the <code>set</code> builtin is enabled. </p> <p>The <code>trap</code> builtin (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>) allows a <code>RETURN</code> pseudo-signal specification, similar to <code>EXIT</code> and <code>DEBUG</code>. Commands specified with an <code>RETURN</code> trap are executed before execution resumes after a shell function or a shell script executed with <code>.</code> or <code>source</code> returns. The <code>RETURN</code> trap is not inherited by shell functions unless the function has been given the <code>trace</code> attribute or the <code>functrace</code> option has been enabled using the <code>shopt</code> builtin. </p> </li><li> The Bash <code>type</code> builtin is more extensive and gives more information about the names it finds (see <a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a>). </li><li> The Bash <code>umask</code> builtin permits a <samp>-p</samp> option to cause the output to be displayed in the form of a <code>umask</code> command that may be reused as input (see <a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a>). </li><li> Bash implements a <code>csh</code>-like directory stack, and provides the <code>pushd</code>, <code>popd</code>, and <code>dirs</code> builtins to manipulate it (see <a href="#The-Directory-Stack">The Directory Stack</a>). Bash also makes the directory stack visible as the value of the <code>DIRSTACK</code> shell variable. </li><li> Bash interprets special backslash-escaped characters in the prompt strings when interactive (see <a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt">Controlling the Prompt</a>). </li><li> The Bash restricted mode is more useful (see <a href="#The-Restricted-Shell">The Restricted Shell</a>); the SVR4.2 shell restricted mode is too limited. </li><li> The <code>disown</code> builtin can remove a job from the internal shell job table (see <a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a>) or suppress the sending of <code>SIGHUP</code> to a job when the shell exits as the result of a <code>SIGHUP</code>. </li><li> Bash includes a number of features to support a separate debugger for shell scripts. </li><li> The SVR4.2 shell has two privilege-related builtins (<code>mldmode</code> and <code>priv</code>) not present in Bash. </li><li> Bash does not have the <code>stop</code> or <code>newgrp</code> builtins. </li><li> Bash does not use the <code>SHACCT</code> variable or perform shell accounting. </li><li> The SVR4.2 <code>sh</code> uses a <code>TIMEOUT</code> variable like Bash uses <code>TMOUT</code>. </li></ul> <p>More features unique to Bash may be found in <a href="#Bash-Features">Bash Features</a>. </p> <span id="Implementation-Differences-From-The-SVR4_002e2-Shell"></span><h3 class="appendixsec">B.1 Implementation Differences From The SVR4.2 Shell</h3> <p>Since Bash is a completely new implementation, it does not suffer from many of the limitations of the SVR4.2 shell. For instance: </p> <ul> <li> Bash does not fork a subshell when redirecting into or out of a shell control structure such as an <code>if</code> or <code>while</code> statement. </li><li> Bash does not allow unbalanced quotes. The SVR4.2 shell will silently insert a needed closing quote at <code>EOF</code> under certain circumstances. This can be the cause of some hard-to-find errors. </li><li> The SVR4.2 shell uses a baroque memory management scheme based on trapping <code>SIGSEGV</code>. If the shell is started from a process with <code>SIGSEGV</code> blocked (e.g., by using the <code>system()</code> C library function call), it misbehaves badly. </li><li> In a questionable attempt at security, the SVR4.2 shell, when invoked without the <samp>-p</samp> option, will alter its real and effective <small>UID</small> and <small>GID</small> if they are less than some magic threshold value, commonly 100. This can lead to unexpected results. </li><li> The SVR4.2 shell does not allow users to trap <code>SIGSEGV</code>, <code>SIGALRM</code>, or <code>SIGCHLD</code>. </li><li> The SVR4.2 shell does not allow the <code>IFS</code>, <code>MAILCHECK</code>, <code>PATH</code>, <code>PS1</code>, or <code>PS2</code> variables to be unset. </li><li> The SVR4.2 shell treats ‘<samp>^</samp>’ as the undocumented equivalent of ‘<samp>|</samp>’. </li><li> Bash allows multiple option arguments when it is invoked (<code>-x -v</code>); the SVR4.2 shell allows only one option argument (<code>-xv</code>). In fact, some versions of the shell dump core if the second argument begins with a ‘<samp>-</samp>’. </li><li> The SVR4.2 shell exits a script if any builtin fails; Bash exits a script only if one of the <small>POSIX</small> special builtins fails, and only for certain failures, as enumerated in the <small>POSIX</small> standard. </li><li> The SVR4.2 shell behaves differently when invoked as <code>jsh</code> (it turns on job control). </li></ul> <hr> <span id="GNU-Free-Documentation-License"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Indexes</a>, Previous: <a href="#Major-Differences-From-The-Bourne-Shell" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Major Differences From The Bourne Shell</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="GNU-Free-Documentation-License-1"></span><h2 class="appendix">Appendix C GNU Free Documentation License</h2> <div align="center">Version 1.3, 3 November 2008 </div> <div class="display"> <pre class="display">Copyright © 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. <a href="http://fsf.org/">http://fsf.org/</a> Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. </pre></div> <ol start="0"> <li> PREAMBLE <p>The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document <em>free</em> in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others. </p> <p>This License is a kind of “copyleft”, which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. </p> <p>We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference. </p> </li><li> APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS <p>This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The “Document”, below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as “you”. You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. </p> <p>A “Modified Version” of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another language. </p> <p>A “Secondary Section” is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document’s overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. </p> <p>The “Invariant Sections” are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none. </p> <p>The “Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. </p> <p>A “Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not “Transparent” is called “Opaque”. </p> <p>Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain <small>ASCII</small> without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, <acronym>SGML</acronym> or <acronym>XML</acronym> using a publicly available <acronym>DTD</acronym>, and standard-conforming simple <acronym>HTML</acronym>, PostScript or <acronym>PDF</acronym> designed for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include <acronym>PNG</acronym>, <acronym>XCF</acronym> and <acronym>JPG</acronym>. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, <acronym>SGML</acronym> or <acronym>XML</acronym> for which the <acronym>DTD</acronym> and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated <acronym>HTML</acronym>, PostScript or <acronym>PDF</acronym> produced by some word processors for output purposes only. </p> <p>The “Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, “Title Page” means the text near the most prominent appearance of the work’s title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text. </p> <p>The “publisher” means any person or entity that distributes copies of the Document to the public. </p> <p>A section “Entitled XYZ” means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, “Endorsements”, or “History”.) To “Preserve the Title” of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section “Entitled XYZ” according to this definition. </p> <p>The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this License. </p> </li><li> VERBATIM COPYING <p>You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3. </p> <p>You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies. </p> </li><li> COPYING IN QUANTITY <p>If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document’s license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects. </p> <p>If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. </p> <p>If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public. </p> <p>It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document. </p> </li><li> MODIFICATIONS <p>You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version: </p> <ol type="A" start="1"> <li> Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission. </li><li> List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement. </li><li> State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher. </li><li> Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document. </li><li> Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices. </li><li> Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. </li><li> Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document’s license notice. </li><li> Include an unaltered copy of this License. </li><li> Preserve the section Entitled “History”, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled “History” in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence. </li><li> Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the “History” section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission. </li><li> For any section Entitled “Acknowledgements” or “Dedications”, Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein. </li><li> Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles. </li><li> Delete any section Entitled “Endorsements”. Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version. </li><li> Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled “Endorsements” or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section. </li><li> Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. </li></ol> <p>If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles. </p> <p>You may add a section Entitled “Endorsements”, provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties—for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard. </p> <p>You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one. </p> <p>The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version. </p> </li><li> COMBINING DOCUMENTS <p>You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers. </p> <p>The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work. </p> <p>In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled “History” in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled “History”; likewise combine any sections Entitled “Acknowledgements”, and any sections Entitled “Dedications”. You must delete all sections Entitled “Endorsements.” </p> </li><li> COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS <p>You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects. </p> <p>You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. </p> </li><li> AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS <p>A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an “aggregate” if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation’s users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document. </p> <p>If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate. </p> </li><li> TRANSLATION <p>Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. </p> <p>If a section in the Document is Entitled “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, or “History”, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. </p> </li><li> TERMINATION <p>You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. </p> <p>However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation. </p> <p>Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice. </p> <p>Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does not give you any rights to use it. </p> </li><li> FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE <p>The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See <a href="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/">http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/</a>. </p> <p>Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License “or any later version” applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License can be used, that proxy’s public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document. </p> </li><li> RELICENSING <p>“Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site” (or “MMC Site”) means any World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A “Massive Multiauthor Collaboration” (or “MMC”) contained in the site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site. </p> <p>“CC-BY-SA” means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license published by that same organization. </p> <p>“Incorporate” means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part of another Document. </p> <p>An MMC is “eligible for relicensing” if it is licensed under this License, and if all works that were first published under this License somewhere other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008. </p> <p>The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing. </p> </li></ol> <span id="ADDENDUM_003a-How-to-use-this-License-for-your-documents"></span><h3 class="heading">ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents</h3> <p>To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example"> Copyright (C) <var>year</var> <var>your name</var>. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation License''. </pre></div> <p>If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the “with…Texts.” line with this: </p> <div class="example"> <pre class="example"> with the Invariant Sections being <var>list their titles</var>, with the Front-Cover Texts being <var>list</var>, and with the Back-Cover Texts being <var>list</var>. </pre></div> <p>If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation. </p> <p>If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software. </p> <hr> <span id="Indexes"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#GNU-Free-Documentation-License" accesskey="p" rel="prev">GNU Free Documentation License</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Indexes-1"></span><h2 class="appendix">Appendix D Indexes</h2> <table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Builtin-Index" rel="index" accesskey="1">Builtin Index</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Index of Bash builtin commands. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Reserved-Word-Index" rel="index" accesskey="2">Reserved Word Index</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Index of Bash reserved words. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Variable-Index" rel="index" accesskey="3">Variable Index</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Quick reference helps you find the variable you want. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Function-Index" rel="index" accesskey="4">Function Index</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Index of bindable Readline functions. </td></tr> <tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Concept-Index" rel="index" accesskey="5">Concept Index</a></td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">General index for concepts described in this manual. </td></tr> </table> <hr> <span id="Builtin-Index"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Reserved-Word-Index" accesskey="n" rel="next">Reserved Word Index</a>, Up: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Indexes</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Index-of-Shell-Builtin-Commands"></span><h3 class="appendixsec">D.1 Index of Shell Builtin Commands</h3> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_symbol-1"><b>.</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_symbol-2"><b>:</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_symbol-3"><b>[</b></a> <br> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-G"><b>G</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-H"><b>H</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-J"><b>J</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-K"><b>K</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-L"><b>L</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-W"><b>W</b></a> </td></tr></table> <table class="index-bt" border="0"> <tr><td></td><th align="left">Index Entry</th><td> </td><th align="left"> Section</th></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_symbol-1">.</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_002e"><code>.</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_symbol-2">:</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_003a"><code>:</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_symbol-3">[</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_005b"><code>[</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-A">A</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-alias"><code>alias</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-B">B</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-bg"><code>bg</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-bind"><code>bind</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-break"><code>break</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-builtin"><code>builtin</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-C">C</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-caller"><code>caller</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-cd"><code>cd</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-command"><code>command</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-compgen"><code>compgen</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins">Programmable Completion Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-complete"><code>complete</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins">Programmable Completion Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-compopt"><code>compopt</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins">Programmable Completion Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-continue"><code>continue</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-D">D</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-declare"><code>declare</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-dirs"><code>dirs</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Directory-Stack-Builtins">Directory Stack Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-disown"><code>disown</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-E">E</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-echo"><code>echo</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-enable"><code>enable</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-eval"><code>eval</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-exec"><code>exec</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-exit"><code>exit</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-export"><code>export</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-F">F</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-fc"><code>fc</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-History-Builtins">Bash History Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-fg"><code>fg</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-G">G</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-getopts"><code>getopts</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-H">H</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-hash"><code>hash</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-help"><code>help</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history"><code>history</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-History-Builtins">Bash History Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-J">J</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-jobs"><code>jobs</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-K">K</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-kill"><code>kill</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-L">L</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-let"><code>let</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-local"><code>local</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-logout"><code>logout</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-M">M</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-mapfile"><code>mapfile</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-P">P</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-popd"><code>popd</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Directory-Stack-Builtins">Directory Stack Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-printf"><code>printf</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-pushd"><code>pushd</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Directory-Stack-Builtins">Directory Stack Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-pwd"><code>pwd</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-R">R</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-read"><code>read</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-readarray"><code>readarray</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-readonly"><code>readonly</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-return"><code>return</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-S">S</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-set"><code>set</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#The-Set-Builtin">The Set Builtin</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shift"><code>shift</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shopt"><code>shopt</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#The-Shopt-Builtin">The Shopt Builtin</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-source"><code>source</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-suspend"><code>suspend</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-T">T</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-test"><code>test</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-times"><code>times</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-trap"><code>trap</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-type"><code>type</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-typeset"><code>typeset</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-U">U</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-ulimit"><code>ulimit</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-umask"><code>umask</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-unalias"><code>unalias</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Builtins">Bash Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-unset"><code>unset</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Builtins">Bourne Shell Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Builtin-Index_bt_letter-W">W</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-wait"><code>wait</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Builtins">Job Control Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> </table> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_symbol-1"><b>.</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_symbol-2"><b>:</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_symbol-3"><b>[</b></a> <br> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-G"><b>G</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-H"><b>H</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-J"><b>J</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-K"><b>K</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-L"><b>L</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Builtin-Index_bt_letter-W"><b>W</b></a> </td></tr></table> <hr> <span id="Reserved-Word-Index"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Variable-Index" accesskey="n" rel="next">Variable Index</a>, Previous: <a href="#Builtin-Index" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Builtin Index</a>, Up: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Indexes</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Index-of-Shell-Reserved-Words"></span><h3 class="appendixsec">D.2 Index of Shell Reserved Words</h3> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-1"><b>!</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-2"><b>[</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-3"><b>]</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-4"><b>{</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-5"><b>}</b></a> <br> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-W"><b>W</b></a> </td></tr></table> <table class="index-rw" border="0"> <tr><td></td><th align="left">Index Entry</th><td> </td><th align="left"> Section</th></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-1">!</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0021"><code>!</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-2">[</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_005b_005b"><code>[[</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-3">]</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_005d_005d"><code>]]</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-4">{</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_007b"><code>{</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Command-Grouping">Command Grouping</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-5">}</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_007d"><code>}</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Command-Grouping">Command Grouping</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-C">C</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-case"><code>case</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-D">D</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-do"><code>do</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Looping-Constructs">Looping Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-done"><code>done</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Looping-Constructs">Looping Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-E">E</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-elif"><code>elif</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-else"><code>else</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-esac"><code>esac</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-F">F</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-fi"><code>fi</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-for"><code>for</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Looping-Constructs">Looping Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-function"><code>function</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Functions">Shell Functions</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-I">I</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-if"><code>if</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-in"><code>in</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-S">S</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-select"><code>select</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-T">T</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-then"><code>then</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-time"><code>time</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-U">U</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-until"><code>until</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Looping-Constructs">Looping Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-W">W</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-while"><code>while</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Looping-Constructs">Looping Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> </table> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-1"><b>!</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-2"><b>[</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-3"><b>]</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-4"><b>{</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_symbol-5"><b>}</b></a> <br> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Reserved-Word-Index_rw_letter-W"><b>W</b></a> </td></tr></table> <hr> <span id="Variable-Index"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Function-Index" accesskey="n" rel="next">Function Index</a>, Previous: <a href="#Reserved-Word-Index" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Reserved Word Index</a>, Up: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Indexes</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Parameter-and-Variable-Index"></span><h3 class="appendixsec">D.3 Parameter and Variable Index</h3> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-1"><b>!</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-2"><b>#</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-3"><b>$</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-4"><b>*</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-5"><b>-</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-6"><b>0</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-7"><b>?</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-8"><b>@</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-9"><b>_</b></a> <br> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-G"><b>G</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-H"><b>H</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-K"><b>K</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-L"><b>L</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-O"><b>O</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-V"><b>V</b></a> </td></tr></table> <table class="index-vr" border="0"> <tr><td></td><th align="left">Index Entry</th><td> </td><th align="left"> Section</th></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_symbol-1">!</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0021-1"><code>!</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_symbol-2">#</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0023"><code>#</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_symbol-3">$</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0024"><code>$</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0024_0021"><code>$!</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0024_0023"><code>$#</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0024_0024"><code>$$</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0024_002a"><code>$*</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0024_002d"><code>$-</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_00240"><code>$0</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0024_003f"><code>$?</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0024_0040"><code>$@</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0024_005f"><code>$_</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_symbol-4">*</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_002a"><code>*</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_symbol-5">-</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_002d"><code>-</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_symbol-6">0</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-0"><code>0</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_symbol-7">?</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_003f"><code>?</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_symbol-8">@</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0040"><code>@</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_symbol-9">_</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_005f"><code>_</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-A">A</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-auto_005fresume"><code>auto_resume</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Variables">Job Control Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-B">B</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH"><code>BASH</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASHOPTS"><code>BASHOPTS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASHPID"><code>BASHPID</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fALIASES"><code>BASH_ALIASES</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fARGC"><code>BASH_ARGC</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fARGV"><code>BASH_ARGV</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fARGV0"><code>BASH_ARGV0</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fCMDS"><code>BASH_CMDS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fCOMMAND"><code>BASH_COMMAND</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fCOMPAT"><code>BASH_COMPAT</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fENV"><code>BASH_ENV</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fEXECUTION_005fSTRING"><code>BASH_EXECUTION_STRING</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fLINENO"><code>BASH_LINENO</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fLOADABLES_005fPATH"><code>BASH_LOADABLES_PATH</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fREMATCH"><code>BASH_REMATCH</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fSOURCE"><code>BASH_SOURCE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fSUBSHELL"><code>BASH_SUBSHELL</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fVERSINFO"><code>BASH_VERSINFO</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fVERSION"><code>BASH_VERSION</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-BASH_005fXTRACEFD"><code>BASH_XTRACEFD</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-bell_002dstyle"><code>bell-style</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-bind_002dtty_002dspecial_002dchars"><code>bind-tty-special-chars</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-blink_002dmatching_002dparen"><code>blink-matching-paren</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-C">C</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-CDPATH"><code>CDPATH</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-CHILD_005fMAX"><code>CHILD_MAX</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-colored_002dcompletion_002dprefix"><code>colored-completion-prefix</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-colored_002dstats"><code>colored-stats</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COLUMNS"><code>COLUMNS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-comment_002dbegin"><code>comment-begin</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-completion_002ddisplay_002dwidth"><code>completion-display-width</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-completion_002dignore_002dcase"><code>completion-ignore-case</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-completion_002dmap_002dcase"><code>completion-map-case</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-completion_002dprefix_002ddisplay_002dlength"><code>completion-prefix-display-length</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-completion_002dquery_002ditems"><code>completion-query-items</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COMPREPLY"><code>COMPREPLY</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COMP_005fCWORD"><code>COMP_CWORD</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COMP_005fKEY"><code>COMP_KEY</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COMP_005fLINE"><code>COMP_LINE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COMP_005fPOINT"><code>COMP_POINT</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COMP_005fTYPE"><code>COMP_TYPE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COMP_005fWORDBREAKS"><code>COMP_WORDBREAKS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COMP_005fWORDS"><code>COMP_WORDS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-convert_002dmeta"><code>convert-meta</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-COPROC"><code>COPROC</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-D">D</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-DIRSTACK"><code>DIRSTACK</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-disable_002dcompletion"><code>disable-completion</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-E">E</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-echo_002dcontrol_002dcharacters"><code>echo-control-characters</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-editing_002dmode"><code>editing-mode</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-EMACS"><code>EMACS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-emacs_002dmode_002dstring"><code>emacs-mode-string</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-enable_002dbracketed_002dpaste"><code>enable-bracketed-paste</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-enable_002dkeypad"><code>enable-keypad</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-ENV"><code>ENV</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-EPOCHREALTIME"><code>EPOCHREALTIME</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-EPOCHSECONDS"><code>EPOCHSECONDS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-EUID"><code>EUID</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-EXECIGNORE"><code>EXECIGNORE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expand_002dtilde"><code>expand-tilde</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-F">F</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-FCEDIT"><code>FCEDIT</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-FIGNORE"><code>FIGNORE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-FUNCNAME"><code>FUNCNAME</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-FUNCNEST"><code>FUNCNEST</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-G">G</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-GLOBIGNORE"><code>GLOBIGNORE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-GROUPS"><code>GROUPS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-H">H</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-histchars"><code>histchars</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HISTCMD"><code>HISTCMD</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HISTCONTROL"><code>HISTCONTROL</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HISTFILE"><code>HISTFILE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HISTFILESIZE"><code>HISTFILESIZE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HISTIGNORE"><code>HISTIGNORE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history_002dpreserve_002dpoint"><code>history-preserve-point</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history_002dsize"><code>history-size</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HISTSIZE"><code>HISTSIZE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HISTTIMEFORMAT"><code>HISTTIMEFORMAT</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HOME"><code>HOME</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-horizontal_002dscroll_002dmode"><code>horizontal-scroll-mode</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HOSTFILE"><code>HOSTFILE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HOSTNAME"><code>HOSTNAME</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-HOSTTYPE"><code>HOSTTYPE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-I">I</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-IFS"><code>IFS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-IGNOREEOF"><code>IGNOREEOF</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-input_002dmeta"><code>input-meta</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-INPUTRC"><code>INPUTRC</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-INSIDE_005fEMACS"><code>INSIDE_EMACS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-isearch_002dterminators"><code>isearch-terminators</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-K">K</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-keymap"><code>keymap</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-L">L</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LANG"><code>LANG</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LC_005fALL"><code>LC_ALL</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LC_005fCOLLATE"><code>LC_COLLATE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LC_005fCTYPE"><code>LC_CTYPE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LC_005fMESSAGES"><code>LC_MESSAGES</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LC_005fMESSAGES-1"><code>LC_MESSAGES</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LC_005fNUMERIC"><code>LC_NUMERIC</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LC_005fTIME"><code>LC_TIME</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LINENO"><code>LINENO</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-LINES"><code>LINES</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-M">M</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-MACHTYPE"><code>MACHTYPE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-MAIL"><code>MAIL</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-MAILCHECK"><code>MAILCHECK</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-MAILPATH"><code>MAILPATH</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-MAPFILE"><code>MAPFILE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-mark_002dmodified_002dlines"><code>mark-modified-lines</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-mark_002dsymlinked_002ddirectories"><code>mark-symlinked-directories</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-match_002dhidden_002dfiles"><code>match-hidden-files</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-menu_002dcomplete_002ddisplay_002dprefix"><code>menu-complete-display-prefix</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-meta_002dflag"><code>meta-flag</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-O">O</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-OLDPWD"><code>OLDPWD</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-OPTARG"><code>OPTARG</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-OPTERR"><code>OPTERR</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-OPTIND"><code>OPTIND</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-OSTYPE"><code>OSTYPE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-output_002dmeta"><code>output-meta</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-P">P</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-page_002dcompletions"><code>page-completions</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PATH"><code>PATH</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PIPESTATUS"><code>PIPESTATUS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-POSIXLY_005fCORRECT"><code>POSIXLY_CORRECT</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PPID"><code>PPID</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PROMPT_005fCOMMAND"><code>PROMPT_COMMAND</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PROMPT_005fDIRTRIM"><code>PROMPT_DIRTRIM</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PS0"><code>PS0</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PS1"><code>PS1</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PS2"><code>PS2</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bourne-Shell-Variables">Bourne Shell Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PS3"><code>PS3</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PS4"><code>PS4</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PWD"><code>PWD</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-R">R</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-RANDOM"><code>RANDOM</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-READLINE_005fLINE"><code>READLINE_LINE</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-READLINE_005fMARK"><code>READLINE_MARK</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-READLINE_005fPOINT"><code>READLINE_POINT</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-REPLY"><code>REPLY</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-revert_002dall_002dat_002dnewline"><code>revert-all-at-newline</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-S">S</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-SECONDS"><code>SECONDS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-SHELL"><code>SHELL</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-SHELLOPTS"><code>SHELLOPTS</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-SHLVL"><code>SHLVL</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-show_002dall_002dif_002dambiguous"><code>show-all-if-ambiguous</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-show_002dall_002dif_002dunmodified"><code>show-all-if-unmodified</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-show_002dmode_002din_002dprompt"><code>show-mode-in-prompt</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-skip_002dcompleted_002dtext"><code>skip-completed-text</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-SRANDOM"><code>SRANDOM</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-T">T</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-TEXTDOMAIN"><code>TEXTDOMAIN</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-TEXTDOMAINDIR"><code>TEXTDOMAINDIR</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-TIMEFORMAT"><code>TIMEFORMAT</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-TMOUT"><code>TMOUT</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-TMPDIR"><code>TMPDIR</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-U">U</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-UID"><code>UID</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Variables">Bash Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Variable-Index_vr_letter-V">V</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-vi_002dcmd_002dmode_002dstring"><code>vi-cmd-mode-string</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-vi_002dins_002dmode_002dstring"><code>vi-ins-mode-string</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-visible_002dstats"><code>visible-stats</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> </table> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-1"><b>!</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-2"><b>#</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-3"><b>$</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-4"><b>*</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-5"><b>-</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-6"><b>0</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-7"><b>?</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-8"><b>@</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_symbol-9"><b>_</b></a> <br> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-G"><b>G</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-H"><b>H</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-K"><b>K</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-L"><b>L</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-O"><b>O</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Variable-Index_vr_letter-V"><b>V</b></a> </td></tr></table> <hr> <span id="Function-Index"></span><div class="header"> <p> Next: <a href="#Concept-Index" accesskey="n" rel="next">Concept Index</a>, Previous: <a href="#Variable-Index" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Variable Index</a>, Up: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Indexes</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Function-Index-1"></span><h3 class="appendixsec">D.4 Function Index</h3> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-G"><b>G</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-H"><b>H</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-K"><b>K</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-N"><b>N</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-O"><b>O</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-Q"><b>Q</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-Y"><b>Y</b></a> </td></tr></table> <table class="index-fn" border="0"> <tr><td></td><th align="left">Index Entry</th><td> </td><th align="left"> Section</th></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-A">A</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-abort-_0028C_002dg_0029"><code>abort (C-g)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-accept_002dline-_0028Newline-or-Return_0029"><code>accept-line (Newline or Return)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-alias_002dexpand_002dline-_0028_0029"><code>alias-expand-line ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-B">B</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-backward_002dchar-_0028C_002db_0029"><code>backward-char (C-b)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-backward_002ddelete_002dchar-_0028Rubout_0029"><code>backward-delete-char (Rubout)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-backward_002dkill_002dline-_0028C_002dx-Rubout_0029"><code>backward-kill-line (C-x Rubout)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-backward_002dkill_002dword-_0028M_002dDEL_0029"><code>backward-kill-word (M-<span class="key">DEL</span>)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-backward_002dword-_0028M_002db_0029"><code>backward-word (M-b)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-beginning_002dof_002dhistory-_0028M_002d_003c_0029"><code>beginning-of-history (M-<)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-beginning_002dof_002dline-_0028C_002da_0029"><code>beginning-of-line (C-a)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-bracketed_002dpaste_002dbegin-_0028_0029"><code>bracketed-paste-begin ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-C">C</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-call_002dlast_002dkbd_002dmacro-_0028C_002dx-e_0029"><code>call-last-kbd-macro (C-x e)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Keyboard-Macros">Keyboard Macros</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-capitalize_002dword-_0028M_002dc_0029"><code>capitalize-word (M-c)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-character_002dsearch-_0028C_002d_005d_0029"><code>character-search (C-])</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-character_002dsearch_002dbackward-_0028M_002dC_002d_005d_0029"><code>character-search-backward (M-C-])</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-clear_002ddisplay-_0028M_002dC_002dl_0029"><code>clear-display (M-C-l)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-clear_002dscreen-_0028C_002dl_0029"><code>clear-screen (C-l)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-complete-_0028TAB_0029"><code>complete (<span class="key">TAB</span>)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-complete_002dcommand-_0028M_002d_0021_0029"><code>complete-command (M-!)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-complete_002dfilename-_0028M_002d_002f_0029"><code>complete-filename (M-/)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-complete_002dhostname-_0028M_002d_0040_0029"><code>complete-hostname (M-@)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-complete_002dinto_002dbraces-_0028M_002d_007b_0029"><code>complete-into-braces (M-{)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-complete_002dusername-_0028M_002d_007e_0029"><code>complete-username (M-~)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-complete_002dvariable-_0028M_002d_0024_0029"><code>complete-variable (M-$)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-copy_002dbackward_002dword-_0028_0029"><code>copy-backward-word ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-copy_002dforward_002dword-_0028_0029"><code>copy-forward-word ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-copy_002dregion_002das_002dkill-_0028_0029"><code>copy-region-as-kill ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-D">D</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-dabbrev_002dexpand-_0028_0029"><code>dabbrev-expand ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-delete_002dchar-_0028C_002dd_0029"><code>delete-char (C-d)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-delete_002dchar_002dor_002dlist-_0028_0029"><code>delete-char-or-list ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-delete_002dhorizontal_002dspace-_0028_0029"><code>delete-horizontal-space ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-digit_002dargument-_0028M_002d0_002c-M_002d1_002c-_2026-M_002d_002d_0029"><code>digit-argument (<kbd>M-0</kbd>, <kbd>M-1</kbd>, … <kbd>M--</kbd>)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Numeric-Arguments">Numeric Arguments</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-display_002dshell_002dversion-_0028C_002dx-C_002dv_0029"><code>display-shell-version (C-x C-v)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-do_002dlowercase_002dversion-_0028M_002dA_002c-M_002dB_002c-M_002dx_002c-_2026_0029"><code>do-lowercase-version (M-A, M-B, M-<var>x</var>, …)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-downcase_002dword-_0028M_002dl_0029"><code>downcase-word (M-l)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-dump_002dfunctions-_0028_0029"><code>dump-functions ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-dump_002dmacros-_0028_0029"><code>dump-macros ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-dump_002dvariables-_0028_0029"><code>dump-variables ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-dynamic_002dcomplete_002dhistory-_0028M_002dTAB_0029"><code>dynamic-complete-history (M-<span class="key">TAB</span>)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-E">E</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-edit_002dand_002dexecute_002dcommand-_0028C_002dx-C_002de_0029"><code>edit-and-execute-command (C-x C-e)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-end_002dkbd_002dmacro-_0028C_002dx-_0029_0029"><code>end-kbd-macro (C-x ))</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Keyboard-Macros">Keyboard Macros</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-end_002dof_002dfile-_0028usually-C_002dd_0029"><code><i>end-of-file</i> (usually C-d)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-end_002dof_002dhistory-_0028M_002d_003e_0029"><code>end-of-history (M->)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-end_002dof_002dline-_0028C_002de_0029"><code>end-of-line (C-e)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-exchange_002dpoint_002dand_002dmark-_0028C_002dx-C_002dx_0029"><code>exchange-point-and-mark (C-x C-x)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-F">F</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-forward_002dbackward_002ddelete_002dchar-_0028_0029"><code>forward-backward-delete-char ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-forward_002dchar-_0028C_002df_0029"><code>forward-char (C-f)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-forward_002dsearch_002dhistory-_0028C_002ds_0029"><code>forward-search-history (C-s)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-forward_002dword-_0028M_002df_0029"><code>forward-word (M-f)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-G">G</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-glob_002dcomplete_002dword-_0028M_002dg_0029"><code>glob-complete-word (M-g)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-glob_002dexpand_002dword-_0028C_002dx-_002a_0029"><code>glob-expand-word (C-x *)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-glob_002dlist_002dexpansions-_0028C_002dx-g_0029"><code>glob-list-expansions (C-x g)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-H">H</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history_002dand_002dalias_002dexpand_002dline-_0028_0029"><code>history-and-alias-expand-line ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history_002dexpand_002dline-_0028M_002d_005e_0029"><code>history-expand-line (M-^)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history_002dsearch_002dbackward-_0028_0029"><code>history-search-backward ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history_002dsearch_002dforward-_0028_0029"><code>history-search-forward ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history_002dsubstring_002dsearch_002dbackward-_0028_0029"><code>history-substring-search-backward ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history_002dsubstring_002dsearch_002dforward-_0028_0029"><code>history-substring-search-forward ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-I">I</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-insert_002dcomment-_0028M_002d_0023_0029"><code>insert-comment (M-#)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-insert_002dcompletions-_0028M_002d_002a_0029"><code>insert-completions (M-*)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-insert_002dlast_002dargument-_0028M_002d_002e-or-M_002d_005f_0029"><code>insert-last-argument (M-. or M-_)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-K">K</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-kill_002dline-_0028C_002dk_0029"><code>kill-line (C-k)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-kill_002dregion-_0028_0029"><code>kill-region ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-kill_002dwhole_002dline-_0028_0029"><code>kill-whole-line ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-kill_002dword-_0028M_002dd_0029"><code>kill-word (M-d)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-M">M</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-magic_002dspace-_0028_0029"><code>magic-space ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-menu_002dcomplete-_0028_0029"><code>menu-complete ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-menu_002dcomplete_002dbackward-_0028_0029"><code>menu-complete-backward ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-N">N</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-next_002dhistory-_0028C_002dn_0029"><code>next-history (C-n)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-next_002dscreen_002dline-_0028_0029"><code>next-screen-line ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-non_002dincremental_002dforward_002dsearch_002dhistory-_0028M_002dn_0029"><code>non-incremental-forward-search-history (M-n)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-non_002dincremental_002dreverse_002dsearch_002dhistory-_0028M_002dp_0029"><code>non-incremental-reverse-search-history (M-p)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-O">O</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-operate_002dand_002dget_002dnext-_0028C_002do_0029"><code>operate-and-get-next (C-o)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-overwrite_002dmode-_0028_0029"><code>overwrite-mode ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-P">P</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-possible_002dcommand_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_0021_0029"><code>possible-command-completions (C-x !)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-possible_002dcompletions-_0028M_002d_003f_0029"><code>possible-completions (M-?)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-possible_002dfilename_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_002f_0029"><code>possible-filename-completions (C-x /)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-possible_002dhostname_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_0040_0029"><code>possible-hostname-completions (C-x @)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-possible_002dusername_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_007e_0029"><code>possible-username-completions (C-x ~)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-possible_002dvariable_002dcompletions-_0028C_002dx-_0024_0029"><code>possible-variable-completions (C-x $)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Completion">Commands For Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-prefix_002dmeta-_0028ESC_0029"><code>prefix-meta (<span class="key">ESC</span>)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-previous_002dhistory-_0028C_002dp_0029"><code>previous-history (C-p)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-previous_002dscreen_002dline-_0028_0029"><code>previous-screen-line ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-print_002dlast_002dkbd_002dmacro-_0028_0029"><code>print-last-kbd-macro ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Keyboard-Macros">Keyboard Macros</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-Q">Q</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-quoted_002dinsert-_0028C_002dq-or-C_002dv_0029"><code>quoted-insert (C-q or C-v)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-R">R</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-re_002dread_002dinit_002dfile-_0028C_002dx-C_002dr_0029"><code>re-read-init-file (C-x C-r)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-redraw_002dcurrent_002dline-_0028_0029"><code>redraw-current-line ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-reverse_002dsearch_002dhistory-_0028C_002dr_0029"><code>reverse-search-history (C-r)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-revert_002dline-_0028M_002dr_0029"><code>revert-line (M-r)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-S">S</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-self_002dinsert-_0028a_002c-b_002c-A_002c-1_002c-_0021_002c-_2026_0029"><code>self-insert (a, b, A, 1, !, …)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-set_002dmark-_0028C_002d_0040_0029"><code>set-mark (C-@)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell_002dbackward_002dkill_002dword-_0028_0029"><code>shell-backward-kill-word ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell_002dbackward_002dword-_0028M_002dC_002db_0029"><code>shell-backward-word (M-C-b)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell_002dexpand_002dline-_0028M_002dC_002de_0029"><code>shell-expand-line (M-C-e)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell_002dforward_002dword-_0028M_002dC_002df_0029"><code>shell-forward-word (M-C-f)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Moving">Commands For Moving</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell_002dkill_002dword-_0028M_002dC_002dd_0029"><code>shell-kill-word (M-C-d)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell_002dtranspose_002dwords-_0028M_002dC_002dt_0029"><code>shell-transpose-words (M-C-t)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-skip_002dcsi_002dsequence-_0028_0029"><code>skip-csi-sequence ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-start_002dkbd_002dmacro-_0028C_002dx-_0028_0029"><code>start-kbd-macro (C-x ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Keyboard-Macros">Keyboard Macros</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-T">T</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-tilde_002dexpand-_0028M_002d_0026_0029"><code>tilde-expand (M-&)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-transpose_002dchars-_0028C_002dt_0029"><code>transpose-chars (C-t)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-transpose_002dwords-_0028M_002dt_0029"><code>transpose-words (M-t)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-U">U</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-undo-_0028C_002d_005f-or-C_002dx-C_002du_0029"><code>undo (C-_ or C-x C-u)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Miscellaneous-Commands">Miscellaneous Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-universal_002dargument-_0028_0029"><code>universal-argument ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Numeric-Arguments">Numeric Arguments</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-unix_002dfilename_002drubout-_0028_0029"><code>unix-filename-rubout ()</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-unix_002dline_002ddiscard-_0028C_002du_0029"><code>unix-line-discard (C-u)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-unix_002dword_002drubout-_0028C_002dw_0029"><code>unix-word-rubout (C-w)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-upcase_002dword-_0028M_002du_0029"><code>upcase-word (M-u)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Text">Commands For Text</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Function-Index_fn_letter-Y">Y</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-yank-_0028C_002dy_0029"><code>yank (C-y)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-yank_002dlast_002darg-_0028M_002d_002e-or-M_002d_005f_0029"><code>yank-last-arg (M-. or M-_)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-yank_002dnth_002darg-_0028M_002dC_002dy_0029"><code>yank-nth-arg (M-C-y)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-History">Commands For History</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-yank_002dpop-_0028M_002dy_0029"><code>yank-pop (M-y)</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Commands-For-Killing">Commands For Killing</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> </table> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-G"><b>G</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-H"><b>H</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-K"><b>K</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-N"><b>N</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-O"><b>O</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-Q"><b>Q</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Function-Index_fn_letter-Y"><b>Y</b></a> </td></tr></table> <hr> <span id="Concept-Index"></span><div class="header"> <p> Previous: <a href="#Function-Index" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Function Index</a>, Up: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Indexes</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Indexes" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> </div> <span id="Concept-Index-1"></span><h3 class="appendixsec">D.5 Concept Index</h3> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-H"><b>H</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-J"><b>J</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-K"><b>K</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-L"><b>L</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-N"><b>N</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-O"><b>O</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-Q"><b>Q</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-V"><b>V</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-W"><b>W</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-Y"><b>Y</b></a> </td></tr></table> <table class="index-cp" border="0"> <tr><td></td><th align="left">Index Entry</th><td> </td><th align="left"> Section</th></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-A">A</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-alias-expansion">alias expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Aliases">Aliases</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-arithmetic-evaluation">arithmetic evaluation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-arithmetic-expansion">arithmetic expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Arithmetic-Expansion">Arithmetic Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-arithmetic_002c-shell">arithmetic, shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-arrays">arrays</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Arrays">Arrays</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-B">B</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-background">background</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Basics">Job Control Basics</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-Bash-configuration">Bash configuration</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Basic-Installation">Basic Installation</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-Bash-installation">Bash installation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Basic-Installation">Basic Installation</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-Bourne-shell">Bourne shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Basic-Shell-Features">Basic Shell Features</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-brace-expansion">brace expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Brace-Expansion">Brace Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-builtin-1">builtin</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-C">C</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-command-editing">command editing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Bare-Essentials">Readline Bare Essentials</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-command-execution">command execution</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Command-Search-and-Execution">Command Search and Execution</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-command-expansion">command expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Simple-Command-Expansion">Simple Command Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-command-history">command history</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-command-search">command search</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Command-Search-and-Execution">Command Search and Execution</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-command-substitution">command substitution</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Command-Substitution">Command Substitution</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-command-timing">command timing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-commands_002c-compound">commands, compound</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Compound-Commands">Compound Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-commands_002c-conditional">commands, conditional</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Conditional-Constructs">Conditional Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-commands_002c-grouping">commands, grouping</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Command-Grouping">Command Grouping</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-commands_002c-lists">commands, lists</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Lists">Lists</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-commands_002c-looping">commands, looping</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Looping-Constructs">Looping Constructs</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-commands_002c-pipelines">commands, pipelines</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-commands_002c-shell">commands, shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Commands">Shell Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-commands_002c-simple">commands, simple</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Simple-Commands">Simple Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-comments_002c-shell">comments, shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Comments">Comments</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-Compatibility-Level">Compatibility Level</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Compatibility-Mode">Shell Compatibility Mode</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-Compatibility-Mode">Compatibility Mode</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Compatibility-Mode">Shell Compatibility Mode</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-completion-builtins">completion builtins</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Programmable-Completion-Builtins">Programmable Completion Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-configuration">configuration</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Basic-Installation">Basic Installation</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-control-operator">control operator</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-coprocess">coprocess</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Coprocesses">Coprocesses</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-D">D</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-directory-stack">directory stack</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#The-Directory-Stack">The Directory Stack</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-E">E</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-editing-command-lines">editing command lines</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Bare-Essentials">Readline Bare Essentials</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-environment">environment</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Environment">Environment</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-evaluation_002c-arithmetic">evaluation, arithmetic</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-event-designators">event designators</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Event-Designators">Event Designators</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-execution-environment">execution environment</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Command-Execution-Environment">Command Execution Environment</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-exit-status">exit status</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-exit-status-1">exit status</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Exit-Status">Exit Status</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expansion">expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Expansions">Shell Expansions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expansion_002c-arithmetic">expansion, arithmetic</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Arithmetic-Expansion">Arithmetic Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expansion_002c-brace">expansion, brace</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Brace-Expansion">Brace Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expansion_002c-filename">expansion, filename</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expansion_002c-parameter">expansion, parameter</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expansion_002c-pathname">expansion, pathname</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expansion_002c-tilde">expansion, tilde</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Tilde-Expansion">Tilde Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expressions_002c-arithmetic">expressions, arithmetic</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-expressions_002c-conditional">expressions, conditional</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Conditional-Expressions">Bash Conditional Expressions</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-F">F</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-field">field</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-filename">filename</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-filename-expansion">filename expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-foreground">foreground</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Basics">Job Control Basics</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-functions_002c-shell">functions, shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Functions">Shell Functions</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-H">H</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history-builtins">history builtins</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-History-Builtins">Bash History Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history-events">history events</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Event-Designators">Event Designators</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history-expansion">history expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#History-Interaction">History Interaction</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-history-list">history list</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-History-Facilities">Bash History Facilities</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-History_002c-how-to-use">History, how to use</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#A-Programmable-Completion-Example">A Programmable Completion Example</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-I">I</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-identifier">identifier</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-initialization-file_002c-readline">initialization file, readline</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File">Readline Init File</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-installation">installation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Basic-Installation">Basic Installation</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-interaction_002c-readline">interaction, readline</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Interaction">Readline Interaction</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-interactive-shell">interactive shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Invoking-Bash">Invoking Bash</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-interactive-shell-1">interactive shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Interactive-Shells">Interactive Shells</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-internationalization">internationalization</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-J">J</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-job">job</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-job-control">job control</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-job-control-1">job control</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Basics">Job Control Basics</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-K">K</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-kill-ring">kill ring</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Killing-Commands">Readline Killing Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-killing-text">killing text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Killing-Commands">Readline Killing Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-L">L</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-localization">localization</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-login-shell">login shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Invoking-Bash">Invoking Bash</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-M">M</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-matching_002c-pattern">matching, pattern</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-metacharacter">metacharacter</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-N">N</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-name">name</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-native-languages">native languages</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-notation_002c-readline">notation, readline</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Bare-Essentials">Readline Bare Essentials</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-O">O</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-operator_002c-shell">operator, shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-P">P</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-parameter-expansion">parameter expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Parameter-Expansion">Shell Parameter Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-parameters">parameters</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Parameters">Shell Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-parameters_002c-positional">parameters, positional</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Positional-Parameters">Positional Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-parameters_002c-special">parameters, special</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Parameters">Special Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-pathname-expansion">pathname expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Filename-Expansion">Filename Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-pattern-matching">pattern matching</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Pattern-Matching">Pattern Matching</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-pipeline">pipeline</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Pipelines">Pipelines</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-POSIX">POSIX</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-POSIX-Mode">POSIX Mode</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-POSIX-Mode">Bash POSIX Mode</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-process-group">process group</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-process-group-ID">process group ID</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-process-substitution">process substitution</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Process-Substitution">Process Substitution</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-programmable-completion">programmable completion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Programmable-Completion">Programmable Completion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-prompting">prompting</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Controlling-the-Prompt">Controlling the Prompt</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-Q">Q</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-quoting">quoting</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Quoting">Quoting</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-quoting_002c-ANSI">quoting, ANSI</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#ANSI_002dC-Quoting">ANSI-C Quoting</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-R">R</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-Readline_002c-how-to-use">Readline, how to use</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Variables">Job Control Variables</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-redirection">redirection</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Redirections">Redirections</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-reserved-word">reserved word</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-reserved-words">reserved words</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Reserved-Words">Reserved Words</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-restricted-shell">restricted shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#The-Restricted-Shell">The Restricted Shell</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-return-status">return status</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-S">S</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell-arithmetic">shell arithmetic</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Arithmetic">Shell Arithmetic</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell-function">shell function</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Functions">Shell Functions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell-script">shell script</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Scripts">Shell Scripts</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell-variable">shell variable</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Parameters">Shell Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-shell_002c-interactive">shell, interactive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Interactive-Shells">Interactive Shells</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-signal">signal</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-signal-handling">signal handling</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Signals">Signals</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-special-builtin">special builtin</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-special-builtin-1">special builtin</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Special-Builtins">Special Builtins</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-startup-files">startup files</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bash-Startup-Files">Bash Startup Files</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-suspending-jobs">suspending jobs</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Job-Control-Basics">Job Control Basics</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-T">T</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-tilde-expansion">tilde expansion</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Tilde-Expansion">Tilde Expansion</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-token">token</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-translation_002c-native-languages">translation, native languages</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Locale-Translation">Locale Translation</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-V">V</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-variable_002c-shell">variable, shell</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Shell-Parameters">Shell Parameters</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-variables_002c-readline">variables, readline</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Init-File-Syntax">Readline Init File Syntax</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-W">W</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-word">word</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-word-splitting">word splitting</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Word-Splitting">Word Splitting</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> <tr><th id="Concept-Index_cp_letter-Y">Y</th><td></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-yanking-text">yanking text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Readline-Killing-Commands">Readline Killing Commands</a></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> </table> <table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-H"><b>H</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-J"><b>J</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-K"><b>K</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-L"><b>L</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-N"><b>N</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-O"><b>O</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-Q"><b>Q</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-V"><b>V</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-W"><b>W</b></a> <a class="summary-letter" href="#Concept-Index_cp_letter-Y"><b>Y</b></a> </td></tr></table> <hr> </body> </html> PK �!\�w�� � INTROnu �[��� BASH - The Bourne-Again Shell Bash is the shell, or command language interpreter, that will appear in the GNU operating system. Bash is an sh-compatible shell that incorporates useful features from the Korn shell (ksh) and C shell (csh). It is intended to conform to the IEEE POSIX P1003.2/ISO 9945.2 Shell and Tools standard. It offers functional improvements over sh for both programming and interactive use. In addition, most sh scripts can be run by Bash without modification. Bash is quite portable. It uses a configuration system that discovers characteristics of the compilation platform at build time, and may therefore be built on nearly every version of UNIX. Ports to UNIX-like systems such as QNX and Minix and to non-UNIX systems such as OS/2, Windows 95, and Windows NT are available. Bash includes the following features: Editing and Completion Bash offers a command-line editing facility which permits users to edit command lines using familiar emacs or vi-style editing commands. Editing allows corrections to be made without having to erase back to the point of error or start the command line anew. The editing facilities include a feature that allows users to complete command and file names. The Bash line editing library is fully customizable. Users may define their own key bindings -- the action taken when a key is pressed. A number of variables to fine-tune editing behavior are also available. History and Command Re-entry The Bash history feature remembers commands entered to the shell and allows them to be recalled and re-executed. The history list may be of unlimited size. Bash allows users to search for previous commands and reuse portions of those commands when composing new ones. The history list may be saved across shell sessions. Bash allows users to control which commands are saved on the history list. Job Control On systems that support it, Bash provides an interface to the operating system's job control facilities, which allow processes to be suspended and restarted, and moved between the foreground and background. Bash allows users to selectively `forget' about background jobs. Shell Functions and Aliases These mechanisms are available to bind a user-selected identifier to a list of commands that will be executed when the identifier is used as a command name. Functions allow local variables and recursion, and have access to the environment of the calling shell. Aliases may be used to create a mnemonic for a command name, expand a single word to a complex command, or ensure that a command is called with a basic set of options. Arrays Bash-2.0 supports indexed arrays of unlimited size. The subscript for an array is an arithmetic expression. Arrays may be assigned to with a new compound assignment syntax, and several builtins have options to operate on array variables. Bash includes a number of built-in array variables. Arithmetic Bash allows users to perform integer arithmetic in any base from two to sixty-four. Nearly all of the C language arithmetic operators are available with the same syntax and precedence as in C. Arithmetic expansion allows an arithmetic expression to be evaluated and the result substituted into the command line. Shell variables can be used as operands, and the value of an expression may be assigned to a variable. An arithmetic expression may be used as a command; the exit status of the command is the value of the expression. ANSI-C Quoting There is a new quoting syntax that allows backslash-escaped characters in strings to be expanded according to the ANSI C standard. Tilde Expansion Users' home directories may be expanded using this feature. Words beginning with a tilde may also be expanded to the current or previous working directory. Brace Expansion Brace expansion is a convenient way to generate a list of strings that share a common prefix or suffix. Substring Capabilities Bash allows new strings to be created by removing leading or trailing substrings from existing variable values, or by specifying a starting offset and length. Portions of variable values may be matched against shell patterns and the matching portion removed or a new value substituted. Indirect Variable Expansion Bash makes it easy to find the value of a shell variable whose name is the value of another variable. Expanded I/O Capabilities Bash provides several input and output features not available in sh, including the ability to: o specify a file or file descriptor for both input and output o read from or write to asynchronous processes using named pipes o read lines ending in backslash o display a prompt on the terminal before a read o format menus and interpret responses to them o echo lines exactly as input without escape processing Control of Builtin Commands Bash implements several builtin commands to give users more control over which commands are executed. The enable builtin allows other builtin commands to be selectively enabled or disabled. The command and builtin builtins change the order in which the shell searches for commands. On systems that provide dynamic loading, new builtins may be loaded into a running shell from a shared object file. These new builtins have access to all of the shell facilities. Help Bash includes a built-in help facility. Shell Optional Behavior There is a great deal of customizable shell behavior. The shopt builtin command provides a unified interface that allows users to alter shell defaults. Prompt Customization Bash allows the primary and secondary prompts to be customized by interpreting a number of backslash-escaped special characters. Parameter and variable expansion is also performed on the values of the primary and secondary prompt strings before they are displayed. Security Bash provides a restricted shell environment. It is also possible to control the execution of setuid/setgid scripts. Directory Stack Bash provides a `directory stack', to which directories may be added and removed. The current directory may be changed to any directory in the stack. It is easy to toggle between two directories in the stack. The directory stack may be saved and restored across different shell invocations. POSIX Mode Bash is nearly completely conformant to POSIX.2. POSIX mode changes those few areas where the Bash default behavior differs from the standard to match the standard. In POSIX mode, Bash is POSIX.2 compliant. Internationalization Bash provides a new quoting syntax that allows strings to be translated according to the current locale. The locale in which the shell itself runs may also be changed, so that the shell messages themselves may be language-specific. The command-line editing facilities allow the input of eight-bit characters, so most of the ISO-8859 family of character sets are supported. Command Timing Bash allows external commands, shell builtin commands and shell functions to be timed. The format used to display the timing information may be changed by the user. PK �!\�<< < READMEnu �[��� This directory contains the bash documentation. FAQ - a set of frequently-asked questions about Bash with answers INTRO - a short introduction to bash article.ms - an article I wrote about bash for The Linux Journal bash.1 - the bash man page builtins.1 - a man page that documents the builtins, extracted from bash.1 bashref.texi - the `bash reference manual' bashref.info - the `bash reference manual' processed by `makeinfo' readline.3 - the readline man page The `.ps' files are postscript versions of the above. The `.html' files are HTML versions of the man page and reference manual. The `.0' files are formatted manual pages. The `.txt' versions are ascii -- the output of `groff -Tascii'. The rest of this file explains how to use the `builtins.1' man page. For each command in the list of builtins create a file in man/man1 called: ${command}.1 eg. for.1 type.1 alias.1 etc. All these files are identical as follows: jaws@jaws(264)$ cat alias.1 .so man1/builtins.1 jaws@jaws(265)$ Make sure you adjust the .so line in builtins.1 to reflect where you put it. PK �!\��+�� � RBASHnu �[��� 6.10 The Restricted Shell ========================= If Bash is started with the name 'rbash', or the '--restricted' or '-r' option is supplied at invocation, the shell becomes restricted. A restricted shell is used to set up an environment more controlled than the standard shell. A restricted shell behaves identically to 'bash' with the exception that the following are disallowed or not performed: * Changing directories with the 'cd' builtin. * Setting or unsetting the values of the 'SHELL', 'PATH', 'HISTFILE', 'ENV', or 'BASH_ENV' variables. * Specifying command names containing slashes. * Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the '.' builtin command. * Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the 'history' builtin command. * Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the '-p' option to the 'hash' builtin command. * Importing function definitions from the shell environment at startup. * Parsing the value of 'SHELLOPTS' from the shell environment at startup. * Redirecting output using the '>', '>|', '<>', '>&', '&>', and '>>' redirection operators. * Using the 'exec' builtin to replace the shell with another command. * Adding or deleting builtin commands with the '-f' and '-d' options to the 'enable' builtin. * Using the 'enable' builtin command to enable disabled shell builtins. * Specifying the '-p' option to the 'command' builtin. * Turning off restricted mode with 'set +r' or 'set +o restricted'. These restrictions are enforced after any startup files are read. When a command that is found to be a shell script is executed (*note Shell Scripts::), 'rbash' turns off any restrictions in the shell spawned to execute the script. The restricted shell mode is only one component of a useful restricted environment. It should be accompanied by setting 'PATH' to a value that allows execution of only a few verified commands (commands that allow shell escapes are particularly vulnerable), leaving the user in a non-writable directory other than his home directory after login, not allowing the restricted shell to execute shell scripts, and cleaning the environment of variables that cause some commands to modify their behavior (e.g., 'VISUAL' or 'PAGER'). Modern systems provide more secure ways to implement a restricted environment, such as 'jails', 'zones', or 'containers'. PK �!\z�m� � FAQnu �[��� PK �!\IVN�5� 5� :� bash.htmlnu �[��� PK �!\��URs Rs �% bashref.htmlnu �[��� PK �!\�w�� � 6� INTROnu �[��� PK �!\�<< < � READMEnu �[��� PK �!\��+�� � }� RBASHnu �[��� PK � J�
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